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===Early Nation: 1776–1860===

===Early Nation: 1776–1860===

At the [[Constitutional Convention]], Founder [[Gouverneur Morris]] declared that anybody who would refer to themselves as a "citizen of the world" is the kind of person that he would not trust, and he went on to say that "every Society from a great nation down to a club had the right of declaring the conditions on which new members should be admitted".<ref>[https://www.hillsdale.edu/educational-outreach/free-market-forum/2012-archive/immigration-and-the-american-founding/ Immigration and the American Founding], [[Hillsdale College]]</ref><ref>[http://www.nationalreview.com/article/207482/wrong-founders-john-fonte Wrong On The Founders], [[National Review]]</ref>

At the [[Constitutional Convention]], Founder [[Gouverneur Morris]] declared that anybody who would refer to themselves as a "citizen of the world" is the kind of person that he would not trust, and he went on to say that "every Society from a great nation down to a club had the right of declaring the conditions on which new members should be admitted".<ref>[https://www.hillsdale.edu/educational-outreach/free-market-forum/2012-archive/immigration-and-the-american-founding/ Immigration and the American Founding], [[Hillsdale College]]</ref><ref>[https://www.nationalreview.com/article/207482/wrong-founders-john-fonte Wrong On The Founders], [[National Review]]</ref>

Historians have shown that in the nineteenth century, the U.S. was a place where immigrants could stake their claims for a new life.  After arrival, German and Irish immigrants settled regionally by nativity within the U.S.  The Irish accounted for 68% of all immigrants to the Northeast; Germans accounted for 47% of all immigrants to the Midwest; British immigrants accounted for 19% of immigrants to the Northeast and 20% of immigrants to the Midwest.  After arrival, the British, German, and Irish achieved success in U.S. labor markets, and the British and German immigrants found opportunity in skilled occupations.  Irish Catholic immigrants did not fare as well as the other two groups in terms of jobs and economic status, but still fared better than had they remained in Ireland.  Moreover, all groups sharply improved their average skills in the U.S. after arrival.  Wages were much higher in the U.S. than in Europe, and it was much easier to own a farm. However, Americans worked much harder than their European cousins and took fewer holidays.

Historians have shown that in the nineteenth century, the U.S. was a place where immigrants could stake their claims for a new life.  After arrival, German and Irish immigrants settled regionally by nativity within the U.S.  The Irish accounted for 68% of all immigrants to the Northeast; Germans accounted for 47% of all immigrants to the Midwest; British immigrants accounted for 19% of immigrants to the Northeast and 20% of immigrants to the Midwest.  After arrival, the British, German, and Irish achieved success in U.S. labor markets, and the British and German immigrants found opportunity in skilled occupations.  Irish Catholic immigrants did not fare as well as the other two groups in terms of jobs and economic status, but still fared better than had they remained in Ireland.  Moreover, all groups sharply improved their average skills in the U.S. after arrival.  Wages were much higher in the U.S. than in Europe, and it was much easier to own a farm. However, Americans worked much harder than their European cousins and took fewer holidays.

=== Chinese immigrants ===

=== Chinese immigrants ===

The construction of the Central Pacific Railroad in [[California]] and [[Nevada]] was handled largely by American engineers and Chinese laborers. In the 1870 census, there were 58,000 Chinese men and 4,000 women in the entire country; these numbers grew to 100,000 men and 4,000 women in the 1880 census.<ref>[http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/twps0029.html Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-born Population of the United States: 1850-1990]

The construction of the Central Pacific Railroad in [[California]] and [[Nevada]] was handled largely by American engineers and Chinese laborers. In the 1870 census, there were 58,000 Chinese men and 4,000 women in the entire country; these numbers grew to 100,000 men and 4,000 women in the 1880 census.<ref>[https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/twps0029.html Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-born Population of the United States: 1850-1990]

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Labor unions such as the [[American Federation of Labor]] strongly opposed the presence of Chinese labor, by reason of both economic competition and race. Immigrants from China were not allowed to become citizens until 1950; however, their children born in the U.S. were full citizens.  

Labor unions such as the [[American Federation of Labor]] strongly opposed the presence of Chinese labor, by reason of both economic competition and race. Immigrants from China were not allowed to become citizens until 1950; however, their children born in the U.S. were full citizens.  

* Barkan, Elliott Robert. ''And Still They Come: Immigrants and American Society, 1920 to the 1990s'' (1996), by leading historian

* Barkan, Elliott Robert. ''And Still They Come: Immigrants and American Society, 1920 to the 1990s'' (1996), by leading historian

* Barkan, Elliott Robert, ed. ''A Nation of Peoples: A Sourcebook on America's Multicultural Heritage'' (1999), 600pp; essays by scholars on 27 groups  

* Barkan, Elliott Robert, ed. ''A Nation of Peoples: A Sourcebook on America's Multicultural Heritage'' (1999), 600pp; essays by scholars on 27 groups  

* Barone, Michael. ''The New Americans: How the Melting Pot Can Work Again'' (2006), by a conservative expert [http://www.amazon.com/New-Americans-Melting-Work-Again/dp/1596980265/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242105562&sr=8-1 excerpts and text search]

* Barone, Michael. ''The New Americans: How the Melting Pot Can Work Again'' (2006), by a conservative expert [https://www.amazon.com/New-Americans-Melting-Work-Again/dp/1596980265/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242105562&sr=8-1 excerpts and text search]

* Bodnar, John. ''The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America'' (1985), liberal historian

* Bodnar, John. ''The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America'' (1985), liberal historian

* Daniels, Roger.  ''Coming to America'' 2nd ed. (2005), liberal historian

* Daniels, Roger.  ''Coming to America'' 2nd ed. (2005), liberal historian

* Meier, Matt S. and Gutierrez, Margo, eds. ''The Mexican American Experience: An Encyclopedia'' (2003) (ISBN 0-313-31643-0)

* Meier, Matt S. and Gutierrez, Margo, eds. ''The Mexican American Experience: An Encyclopedia'' (2003) (ISBN 0-313-31643-0)

* Magocsi, Paul Robert. ''Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples'' (1999), 1350 pp; major compilation

* Magocsi, Paul Robert. ''Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples'' (1999), 1350 pp; major compilation

* Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' (1980) (ISBN 0-674-37512-2), the standard reference, covering all major groups and most minor groups; Thernstrom is a leading conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Harvard-Encyclopedia-American-Ethnic-Groups/dp/0674375122 excerpt and text search]

* Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' (1980) (ISBN 0-674-37512-2), the standard reference, covering all major groups and most minor groups; Thernstrom is a leading conservative historian [https://www.amazon.com/Harvard-Encyclopedia-American-Ethnic-Groups/dp/0674375122 excerpt and text search]

* Wittke, Carl. ''We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant'' (1939), 552pp good older history cover major groups [http://www.questia.com/library/book/we-who-built-america-the-saga-of-the-immigrant-by-carl-wittke.jsp online edition]

* Wittke, Carl. ''We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant'' (1939), 552pp good older history cover major groups [http://www.questia.com/library/book/we-who-built-america-the-saga-of-the-immigrant-by-carl-wittke.jsp online edition]