Changes

Chinese, Muslim, Indian and Christian traditions of learning emphasize that God determined history and humans played only supporting roles. Thus Saint Augustine ''City of God'' (413-26 AD) distinguished sharply between divine purpose and disjointed human history. In Christian Europe narrative writing was replaced by annals and chronicles that often stressed the trivial and the miraculous.   

Chinese, Muslim, Indian and Christian traditions of learning emphasize that God determined history and humans played only supporting roles. Thus Saint Augustine ''City of God'' (413-26 AD) distinguished sharply between divine purpose and disjointed human history. In Christian Europe narrative writing was replaced by annals and chronicles that often stressed the trivial and the miraculous.   

In China [[Ssu-ma Cheng-chen]] [Sima Qian] circa 100 BC presented a model of Chinese history that assumed Heaven choses virtuous hereditary rulers, then arranges events so that they were overthrown when a ruling dynasty became corrupt.<ref>Sima Qian, ''Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty'' (3rd ed. 1995) [http://www.amazon.com/Records-Grand-Historian-Qin-Dynasty/dp/0231081693/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207316780&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search]; Burton Watson, ''Ssu-ma Ch'ien: Grand Historian of China'' (1958)</ref> Each new dynasty begins virtuous and strong, but then decays, provoking the transfer of Heaven's mandate to a new ruler. The test of virtue in a new dynasty is success in being obeyed by China and neighboring barbarians. After 2000 years Ssu-ma Chen's model still dominates scholarship, even among westerners who do not believe that the ruler's personal virtue assures divine support.<ref>S. Y. Teng, "Chinese Historiography in the Last Fifty Years," ''The Far Eastern Quarterly,'' Vol. 8, No. 2 (Feb., 1949), pp. 131-156 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0363-6917(194902)8%3A2%3C131%3ACHITLF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]</ref>

In China [[Ssu-ma Cheng-chen]] [Sima Qian] circa 100 BC presented a model of Chinese history that assumed Heaven choses virtuous hereditary rulers, then arranges events so that they were overthrown when a ruling dynasty became corrupt.<ref>Sima Qian, ''Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty'' (3rd ed. 1995) [https://www.amazon.com/Records-Grand-Historian-Qin-Dynasty/dp/0231081693/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207316780&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search]; Burton Watson, ''Ssu-ma Ch'ien: Grand Historian of China'' (1958)</ref> Each new dynasty begins virtuous and strong, but then decays, provoking the transfer of Heaven's mandate to a new ruler. The test of virtue in a new dynasty is success in being obeyed by China and neighboring barbarians. After 2000 years Ssu-ma Chen's model still dominates scholarship, even among westerners who do not believe that the ruler's personal virtue assures divine support.<ref>S. Y. Teng, "Chinese Historiography in the Last Fifty Years," ''The Far Eastern Quarterly,'' Vol. 8, No. 2 (Feb., 1949), pp. 131-156 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0363-6917(194902)8%3A2%3C131%3ACHITLF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]</ref>

   

   

One Arab scholar, [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406) broke with traditionalism and offered a strikingly modern model of historical change in ''Muqaddimah,'' a brilliant exposition of the methodology of scientific history. Ibn Khaldun focused on the reasons for the rise and fall of civilization, arguing that the causes of change are to be sought in the economic and social structure of society. His work was largely ignored in the Muslim world.<ref>Ibn Khaldun, ''The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History'' ed. by N. J. Dawood, Bruce Lawrence, and Franz Rosenthal (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Muqaddimah-Introduction-History-Abridged-Bollingen/dp/0691120544/ref=pd_bbs_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207423882&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]</ref> Otherwise the Muslim, Chinese and Indian intellectuals held fast to a religious traditionalism, leaving them unprepared to advise national leaders on how to confront European imperialism as it reached into Asia after 1500.

One Arab scholar, [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406) broke with traditionalism and offered a strikingly modern model of historical change in ''Muqaddimah,'' a brilliant exposition of the methodology of scientific history. Ibn Khaldun focused on the reasons for the rise and fall of civilization, arguing that the causes of change are to be sought in the economic and social structure of society. His work was largely ignored in the Muslim world.<ref>Ibn Khaldun, ''The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History'' ed. by N. J. Dawood, Bruce Lawrence, and Franz Rosenthal (2004) [https://www.amazon.com/Muqaddimah-Introduction-History-Abridged-Bollingen/dp/0691120544/ref=pd_bbs_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207423882&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]</ref> Otherwise the Muslim, Chinese and Indian intellectuals held fast to a religious traditionalism, leaving them unprepared to advise national leaders on how to confront European imperialism as it reached into Asia after 1500.

==Europe==

==Europe==

==20th century writers==

==20th century writers==

Influential writers who have reached wide audiences including [[H. G. Wells]], [[Oswald Spengler]], [[Arnold J. Toynbee]], [[Pitirim Sorokin]], [[Christopher Dawson]],<ref>Bradley J. Birzer, ''Sanctifying the World: The Augustinian Life and Mind of Christopher Dawson'' (2007)</ref> and [[Lewis Mumford]]. Recent scholars working the field include [[Eric Voegelin]],<ref>Michael P. Federici, ''Eric Voegelin: The Restoration of Order'' (2002)</ref> [[William H. McNeill]] and Michael Mann.  Most of them (except Wells, Mumford and Mann) have been political conservatives.<ref>Michael Mann, ''The Sources of Social Power: Volume 1, A History of Power from the Beginning to AD 1760'' (1986) [http://www.amazon.com/Sources-Social-Power-History-Beginning/dp/052131349X/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207300235&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]</ref>

Influential writers who have reached wide audiences including [[H. G. Wells]], [[Oswald Spengler]], [[Arnold J. Toynbee]], [[Pitirim Sorokin]], [[Christopher Dawson]],<ref>Bradley J. Birzer, ''Sanctifying the World: The Augustinian Life and Mind of Christopher Dawson'' (2007)</ref> and [[Lewis Mumford]]. Recent scholars working the field include [[Eric Voegelin]],<ref>Michael P. Federici, ''Eric Voegelin: The Restoration of Order'' (2002)</ref> [[William H. McNeill]] and Michael Mann.  Most of them (except Wells, Mumford and Mann) have been political conservatives.<ref>Michael Mann, ''The Sources of Social Power: Volume 1, A History of Power from the Beginning to AD 1760'' (1986) [https://www.amazon.com/Sources-Social-Power-History-Beginning/dp/052131349X/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207300235&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]</ref>

[[Oswald Spengler|Spengler's]] ''Decline of the West'' (2 vol 1919-1922) compared nine organic cultures: Egyptian (3400 BC-1200 BC), Indian (1500 BC-1100 BC), Chinese (1300 BC-AD 200), Classical (1100 BC-400 BC), Byzantine (AD 300-1100), Aztec (AD 1300-1500), Arabian (AD 300-1250), Mayan (AD 600-960), and Western (AD 900-1900). His book was a smashing success among intellectuals worldwide as it predicted the disintegration of European and American civilization after a violent "age of Caesarism," arguing by detailed analogies with other civilizations. It deepened the post-World War I pessimism in Europe, and was warmly received by intellectuals in China, India and Latin America who hoped his predictions of the collapse of European empires would soon come true.<ref>Neil McInnes, "The Great Doomsayer: Oswald Spengler Reconsidered." ''National Interest'' 1997 (48): 65-76. Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

[[Oswald Spengler|Spengler's]] ''Decline of the West'' (2 vol 1919-1922) compared nine organic cultures: Egyptian (3400 BC-1200 BC), Indian (1500 BC-1100 BC), Chinese (1300 BC-AD 200), Classical (1100 BC-400 BC), Byzantine (AD 300-1100), Aztec (AD 1300-1500), Arabian (AD 300-1250), Mayan (AD 600-960), and Western (AD 900-1900). His book was a smashing success among intellectuals worldwide as it predicted the disintegration of European and American civilization after a violent "age of Caesarism," arguing by detailed analogies with other civilizations. It deepened the post-World War I pessimism in Europe, and was warmly received by intellectuals in China, India and Latin America who hoped his predictions of the collapse of European empires would soon come true.<ref>Neil McInnes, "The Great Doomsayer: Oswald Spengler Reconsidered." ''National Interest'' 1997 (48): 65-76. Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

* McNeill, William H. "The Changing Shape of World History." ''History and Theory'' 1995 34(2): 8-26. Issn: 0018-2656 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2656(199505)34%3A2%3C8%3ATCSOWH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 in JSTOR]

* McNeill, William H. "The Changing Shape of World History." ''History and Theory'' 1995 34(2): 8-26. Issn: 0018-2656 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2656(199505)34%3A2%3C8%3ATCSOWH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 in JSTOR]

* McNeill, William H., Jerry H. Bentley, and David Christian, eds. ''Berkshire Encyclopedia Of World History'' (5 vol 2005)  

* McNeill, William H., Jerry H. Bentley, and David Christian, eds. ''Berkshire Encyclopedia Of World History'' (5 vol 2005)  

* Manning, Patrick. ''Navigating World History: Historians Create a Global Past'' (2003), an important  guide to the entire field [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1403961190/ref=pd_cp_b_1?pf_rd_p=317711001&pf_rd_s=center-41&pf_rd_t=201&pf_rd_i=0312183275&pf_rd_m=ATVPDKIKX0DER&pf_rd_r=0WT63HAFPCZPVRMKAM0H excerpt and text search]  

* Manning, Patrick. ''Navigating World History: Historians Create a Global Past'' (2003), an important  guide to the entire field [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1403961190/ref=pd_cp_b_1?pf_rd_p=317711001&pf_rd_s=center-41&pf_rd_t=201&pf_rd_i=0312183275&pf_rd_m=ATVPDKIKX0DER&pf_rd_r=0WT63HAFPCZPVRMKAM0H excerpt and text search]  

* Mazlish, Bruce. "Comparing Global History to World History," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History,'' Vol. 28, No. 3 (Winter, 1998), pp.&nbsp;385–395 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-1953(199824)28:3%3C385:CGHTWH%3E2.0.CO;2-R in JSTOR]

* Mazlish, Bruce. "Comparing Global History to World History," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History,'' Vol. 28, No. 3 (Winter, 1998), pp.&nbsp;385–395 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-1953(199824)28:3%3C385:CGHTWH%3E2.0.CO;2-R in JSTOR]

* Neiberg, Michael S. ''Warfare in World History'' (2001) [http://www.questia.com/read/102819116?title=Warfare%20in%20World%20History online edition]

* Neiberg, Michael S. ''Warfare in World History'' (2001) [http://www.questia.com/read/102819116?title=Warfare%20in%20World%20History online edition]

* Watts, Sheldon. ''Disease and Medicine in World History'' (2003) [http://www.questia.com/read/107990563?title=Disease%20and%20Medicine%20in%20World%20History online edition]

* Watts, Sheldon. ''Disease and Medicine in World History'' (2003) [http://www.questia.com/read/107990563?title=Disease%20and%20Medicine%20in%20World%20History online edition]

===Primary sources===

===Primary sources===

* Dawson, Christopher. ''Religion and the Rise of Western Culture''(1991) [http://www.amazon.com/Religion-Western-Culture-Christopher-Dawson/dp/0385421109/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207300670&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Dawson, Christopher. ''Religion and the Rise of Western Culture''(1991) [https://www.amazon.com/Religion-Western-Culture-Christopher-Dawson/dp/0385421109/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207300670&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* McNeill, Robert, and William H. McNeill. ''The Human Web: A Bird's-Eye View of World History'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Human-Web-Birds-Eye-World-History/dp/0393925684/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207300431&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]  

* McNeill, Robert, and William H. McNeill. ''The Human Web: A Bird's-Eye View of World History'' (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/Human-Web-Birds-Eye-World-History/dp/0393925684/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207300431&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]  

* Spengler, Oswald. ''The Decline of the West'' (1918–22) [http://www.archive.org/details/declineofwest01spenuoft vol 1 online]; [http://www.archive.org/details/declineofwest02spenuoft vol 2 online]; [http://www.amazon.com/Decline-West-Oxford-Paperbacks/dp/0195066340/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207258261&sr=8-13 excerpt and text search, abridged edition]

* Spengler, Oswald. ''The Decline of the West'' (1918–22) [http://www.archive.org/details/declineofwest01spenuoft vol 1 online]; [http://www.archive.org/details/declineofwest02spenuoft vol 2 online]; [https://www.amazon.com/Decline-West-Oxford-Paperbacks/dp/0195066340/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207258261&sr=8-13 excerpt and text search, abridged edition]

==See also==

==See also==