Changes

The Nile Valley had a profound impact upon Egyptian culture and thinking. Its natural boundaries of almost empty deserts to east and west, the first cataract in the south, and [[Mediterranean]] sea in the north fostered the early adoption of a nation-state identity. These boundaries also protected Egypt in times of strife elsewhere in the region. Despite this, Egypt was not an island, and traded with neighbours in [[Nubia]], [[Libya]] and the [[Levant]], as well as further afield.

The Nile Valley had a profound impact upon Egyptian culture and thinking. Its natural boundaries of almost empty deserts to east and west, the first cataract in the south, and [[Mediterranean]] sea in the north fostered the early adoption of a nation-state identity. These boundaries also protected Egypt in times of strife elsewhere in the region. Despite this, Egypt was not an island, and traded with neighbours in [[Nubia]], [[Libya]] and the [[Levant]], as well as further afield.

Egypt’s climate varied over time and location, through during the Dynastic era was, as it is today, predominantly a [[desert climate]], with long, hot summers and short, relatively mild winters, with rainfall being insignificant, with a Mediterranean climate prevailing in the Delta and far north.   

Egypt's climate varied over time and location, through during the Dynastic era was, as it is today, predominantly a [[desert climate]], with long, hot summers and short, relatively mild winters, with rainfall being insignificant, with a Mediterranean climate prevailing in the Delta and far north.   

The inundation defined the seasons. The [[Nile]], swollen by rains in [[Ethiopia]],<ref>[http://library.thinkquest.org/16645/the_land/nile_afn.shtml  ThinkQuestTeam: ''The Annual Flood of the Nile'']</ref> never failed to rise each summer, though the level of rise varied greatly. As it rose, the water spread over the flood plain, depositing large amounts of mud, silt and organic matter, laying down a nutrient rich layer, replenishing the soil and soaking it. For three months the water remained before retreating, leaving enough moisture in the ground that no further irrigation would be necessary on the first harvest. It was this inundation that would be the foundation for Egypt’s great wealth, built not on gold, but on grain.

The inundation defined the seasons. The [[Nile]], swollen by rains in [[Ethiopia]],<ref>[http://library.thinkquest.org/16645/the_land/nile_afn.shtml  ThinkQuestTeam: ''The Annual Flood of the Nile'']</ref> never failed to rise each summer, though the level of rise varied greatly. As it rose, the water spread over the flood plain, depositing large amounts of mud, silt and organic matter, laying down a nutrient rich layer, replenishing the soil and soaking it. For three months the water remained before retreating, leaving enough moisture in the ground that no further irrigation would be necessary on the first harvest. It was this inundation that would be the foundation for Egypt's great wealth, built not on gold, but on grain.

== Chronology ==

== Chronology ==

=== New Kingdom ===

=== New Kingdom ===

[[File:Abusimbel.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Tempel of Abu Simbel]]

[[File:Abusimbel.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Tempel of Abu Simbel]]

The [[New Kingdom]] is often called Egypt’s “Age of Empire”. Following the war of Reunification led by the 17th Dynasty, [[Ahmose I]] finally managed to liberate and reunify Egypt, founding the [[18th Dynasty]] and the [[New Kingdom]] in approximately 1500BC.

The [[New Kingdom]] is often called Egypt's “Age of Empire”. Following the war of Reunification led by the 17th Dynasty, [[Ahmose I]] finally managed to liberate and reunify Egypt, founding the [[18th Dynasty]] and the [[New Kingdom]] in approximately 1500BC.

The Pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty re-invented the Egyptian military forces, adopting the most advanced weapons of the day. Egyptian tactics were also revolutionized, becoming highly innovative. Many Egyptian campaigns of this period are regarded as military geniuses, with [[Thutmose III]] being regarded by most as the “[[Napoleon]] of Egypt”. These campaigns ultimately created a sprawling and varied Egyptian empire, stretching from [[Gebel Barkal]] to the [[Euphrates]], and a zone of influence far beyond.  

The Pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty re-invented the Egyptian military forces, adopting the most advanced weapons of the day. Egyptian tactics were also revolutionized, becoming highly innovative. Many Egyptian campaigns of this period are regarded as military geniuses, with [[Thutmose III]] being regarded by most as the “[[Napoleon]] of Egypt”. These campaigns ultimately created a sprawling and varied Egyptian empire, stretching from [[Gebel Barkal]] to the [[Euphrates]], and a zone of influence far beyond.  

It was at the height of this time of greatness that Egypt was plunged into turmoil. The heretical ruler, [[Amunhotep IV]], changed his name to [[Akhenaten]] and embraced a corrupted form of the Solar Cult as an absolutist [[monotheistic]] belief. Traditional temples were closed, and the capital city moved to a desert plain in Middle Egypt, where a new capital was established, named [[Akhetaten]]. Akhenaten died after 17 years on the throne, and both his cult and capital both died with him.

It was at the height of this time of greatness that Egypt was plunged into turmoil. The heretical ruler, [[Amunhotep IV]], changed his name to [[Akhenaten]] and embraced a corrupted form of the Solar Cult as an absolutist [[monotheistic]] belief. Traditional temples were closed, and the capital city moved to a desert plain in Middle Egypt, where a new capital was established, named [[Akhetaten]]. Akhenaten died after 17 years on the throne, and both his cult and capital both died with him.

The Egyptian empire proved resilient to such trauma, and the traditional New Kingdom capital and cults were immediately restored, and the empire remained essentially unchallenged in Asia until the time of [[Ramesses III]] in the 20th Dynasty, and maintained it’s grip on Nubia until the fall of the New Kingdom at the close of the 20th Dynasty.

The Egyptian empire proved resilient to such trauma, and the traditional New Kingdom capital and cults were immediately restored, and the empire remained essentially unchallenged in Asia until the time of [[Ramesses III]] in the 20th Dynasty, and maintained it's grip on Nubia until the fall of the New Kingdom at the close of the 20th Dynasty.

=== Late Period ===

=== Late Period ===

=== Ptolemaic Period ===

=== Ptolemaic Period ===

[[File:Cleopatra.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Cleopatra VII]], the last Pharaoh]]

[[File:Cleopatra.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Cleopatra VII]], the last Pharaoh]]

Alexander put an end to the second Persian occupation in 332BC. Having secured Egypt, he traveled to the Oracle of [[Amun]] in [[Siwa]] Oasis, where the oracle pronounced him the Son of Amun, and legitimate ruler of Egypt. He also visited [[Memphis]], the traditional administrative capital of Egypt and centre of the cult of [[Ptah]]. These acts won him the respect of some of the Egyptian elite. Alexander also decided to develop a port on Egypt’s Mediterranean coast. He chose the coastal town of [[Ra-Kedet]], which would be redeveloped into the metropolis of [[Alexandria]], serving to link Egypt to his empire.

Alexander put an end to the second Persian occupation in 332BC. Having secured Egypt, he traveled to the Oracle of [[Amun]] in [[Siwa]] Oasis, where the oracle pronounced him the Son of Amun, and legitimate ruler of Egypt. He also visited [[Memphis]], the traditional administrative capital of Egypt and centre of the cult of [[Ptah]]. These acts won him the respect of some of the Egyptian elite. Alexander also decided to develop a port on Egypt's Mediterranean coast. He chose the coastal town of [[Ra-Kedet]], which would be redeveloped into the metropolis of [[Alexandria]], serving to link Egypt to his empire.

Following Alexander’s death, control of Egypt fell first of all to [[Phillip Arrhideaus]], then [[Alexander IV]], before passing to [[Ptolemy I]], a former general of Alexander. His decedents would rule Egypt with greatly varying degrees of success until the death of [[Cleopatra VII]] in 30BC. Although sometimes thought of as a period of unity equivalent to the New Kingdom, the Ptolemaic period was often highly unstable and wracked by rebellion. Ptolemaic rule became increasingly exploitative, thought the dynasty kept a superficial adherence to Egyptian religious and social traditions that ensured support, or at least neutrality, of the priesthood.

Following Alexander's death, control of Egypt fell first of all to [[Phillip Arrhideaus]], then [[Alexander IV]], before passing to [[Ptolemy I]], a former general of Alexander. His decedents would rule Egypt with greatly varying degrees of success until the death of [[Cleopatra VII]] in 30BC. Although sometimes thought of as a period of unity equivalent to the New Kingdom, the Ptolemaic period was often highly unstable and wracked by rebellion. Ptolemaic rule became increasingly exploitative, thought the dynasty kept a superficial adherence to Egyptian religious and social traditions that ensured support, or at least neutrality, of the priesthood.

See also: [[Ptolemaic Period]] the [[Great Egyptian Revolt]].

See also: [[Ptolemaic Period]] the [[Great Egyptian Revolt]].

=== Roman/Byzantine/Coptic Period ===

=== Roman/Byzantine/Coptic Period ===

Roman rule attempted to integrate Egypt into the trading system of the [[Roman empire]], utilizing the wealth and productivity of Egyptian agriculture to supply the Rome and it’s army, and became increasingly exploitative, leading [[Rome]] to maintain three legions in the country. Traditional Roman tolerance of other religions and ways of life also assisted their moves to consolidate control, but administrative reforms did not help the gradual decline brought about by over-exploitation, unrest, and Rome’s problems elsewhere. The rise of [[Christianity]] led to further pressures, and by the time of the [[Arab]] invasion, Egypt had become depopulated, with most of her cities lying abandoned.

Roman rule attempted to integrate Egypt into the trading system of the [[Roman empire]], utilizing the wealth and productivity of Egyptian agriculture to supply the Rome and it's army, and became increasingly exploitative, leading [[Rome]] to maintain three legions in the country. Traditional Roman tolerance of other religions and ways of life also assisted their moves to consolidate control, but administrative reforms did not help the gradual decline brought about by over-exploitation, unrest, and Rome's problems elsewhere. The rise of [[Christianity]] led to further pressures, and by the time of the [[Arab]] invasion, Egypt had become depopulated, with most of her cities lying abandoned.

== Government ==

== Government ==

Throughout the Dynastic Period, Egypt was an [[absolute monarchy]], ruled by a monarch regarded as divine. Egypt was a centralized state, with the monarch having the positions of [[head of state]], [[head of government]], head of the judiciary, [[commander in chief]] of the armed forces, and high priest of every temple. The monarch had several titles, the most well known being from the Greek derived “[[Pharaoh]]” (Egyptian: pr-aA, reconstructed as Per-‘a), though the more common Egyptian title was nsw-bity (Nesu-Bity), possibly translated as “King of Upper and Lower Egypt"). Day-to-day administration was overseen by a [[vizier]] (Egyptian: TAty, reconstructed as Tjaty), and in some periods of Egyptian history two viziers were appointed, one for Upper and one for Lower Egypt, reflecting a duality present in much of the administration.

Throughout the Dynastic Period, Egypt was an [[absolute monarchy]], ruled by a monarch regarded as divine. Egypt was a centralized state, with the monarch having the positions of [[head of state]], [[head of government]], head of the judiciary, [[commander in chief]] of the armed forces, and high priest of every temple. The monarch had several titles, the most well known being from the Greek derived “[[Pharaoh]]” (Egyptian: pr-aA, reconstructed as Per-‘a), though the more common Egyptian title was nsw-bity (Nesu-Bity), possibly translated as “King of Upper and Lower Egypt". Day-to-day administration was overseen by a [[vizier]] (Egyptian: TAty, reconstructed as Tjaty), and in some periods of Egyptian history two viziers were appointed, one for Upper and one for Lower Egypt, reflecting a duality present in much of the administration.

The treasury, likewise, reflected the natural separation of the country, though a single treasurer oversaw both “The Overseer of the Double Granaries” being a common title for this role.

The treasury, likewise, reflected the natural separation of the country, though a single treasurer oversaw both “The Overseer of the Double Granaries” being a common title for this role.

Egyptian society was deeply conservative and hierarchical. The pyramid analogy is perhaps over used to describe Egyptian society, but nonetheless remains accurate, with the Pharaoh at the apex, above the vizier and other prominent courtiers, some with seemingly trivial titles but great influence, such as Fan Bearers, Sandal Bearers, Seal Bearers etc.

Egyptian society was deeply conservative and hierarchical. The pyramid analogy is perhaps over used to describe Egyptian society, but nonetheless remains accurate, with the Pharaoh at the apex, above the vizier and other prominent courtiers, some with seemingly trivial titles but great influence, such as Fan Bearers, Sandal Bearers, Seal Bearers etc.

Beneath these were the Great Nobles, followed by Egypt’s large bureaucracy and officialdom. Beneath them stood the artisans and craftsmen. At the bottom of society proper, and accounting for circa. 80% of the population, the farmers. In addition to this, as in all societies, there also existed the “classless” people. Convicts, captives and the unfree, as well as the desert nomads and oasis dwellers who lives within Egypt’s area of influence, but never entirely integrated into Egyptian society.

Beneath these were the Great Nobles, followed by Egypt's large bureaucracy and officialdom. Beneath them stood the artisans and craftsmen. At the bottom of society proper, and accounting for circa. 80% of the population, the farmers. In addition to this, as in all societies, there also existed the “classless” people. Convicts, captives and the unfree, as well as the desert nomads and oasis dwellers who lives within Egypt's area of influence, but never entirely integrated into Egyptian society.

The place of the military fluctuated, from a minor an important role in the Old Kingdom, which fielded no standing army, to a prominent role in the New Kingdom, where the 19th Dynasty bloodline is descended from military routes.  

The place of the military fluctuated, from a minor an important role in the Old Kingdom, which fielded no standing army, to a prominent role in the New Kingdom, where the 19th Dynasty bloodline is descended from military routes.