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==The Scientific Revolution==

==The Scientific Revolution==

A remarkable Polish scientist named Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) made a stunning claim that rocked the religious and scientific world:  he asserted that the earth revolved around the sun, not the sun around the earth.  “Finally we shall place the Sun himself at the center of the Universe.  All this is suggested by the systematic procession of events and the harmony of the whole Universe, if only we face the facts, as they say, ‘with both eyes open.’”  With that bold declaration, this respected scientist in the Catholic Church began the “Scientific Revolution,” which rejected geocentric (earth-centered) theory of the universe dating back over a thousand years to Ptolemy.

A remarkable Polish scientist named [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (1473-1543) made a stunning claim that rocked the religious and scientific world:  he asserted that the earth revolved around the sun, not the sun around the earth.  “Finally we shall place the Sun himself at the center of the Universe.  All this is suggested by the systematic procession of events and the harmony of the whole Universe, if only we face the facts, as they say, ‘with both eyes open.’”  With that bold declaration, this respected scientist in the Catholic Church began the “Scientific Revolution,” which rejected geocentric (earth-centered) theory of the universe dating back over a thousand years to Ptolemy.

Copernicus worked for years on his book describing his theory, and did not publish it until near the very end of his life.  He entitled it, “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” (“On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”), and published it in 1543.  The work was far from perfect:  Copernicus assumed that the planets moved in circular revolutions (they actually revolve in ellipses, though the orbit of the earth is nearly circular), and Copernicus also thought that the sun stood motionless as some kind of stationery temple in the universe.

Copernicus worked for years on his book describing his theory, and did not publish it until near the very end of his life.  He entitled it, “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” (“On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”), and published it in 1543.  The work was far from perfect:  Copernicus assumed that the planets moved in circular revolutions (they actually revolve in ellipses, though the orbit of the earth is nearly circular), and Copernicus also thought that the sun stood motionless as some kind of stationery temple in the universe.

The reception to his work was initially positive within the Catholic Church, but negative among Protestants who felt it conflicted with some literal interpretations of the Bible, such as the account of how Joshua benefited from the sun standing still as it passed over the earth.  “And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher?  So the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day.”  Joshua 10:13.  But there were few Protestants in Poland then (or now), and Copernicus died without much controversy.

The reception to his work was initially positive within the Catholic Church, but negative among Protestants who felt it conflicted with some literal interpretations of the Bible, such as the account of how Joshua benefited from the sun standing still as it passed over the earth.  “And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher?  So the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day.”  Joshua 10:13.  But there were few Protestants in Poland then (or now), and Copernicus died without much controversy.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), a Protestant in Germany, built on Copernicus’s work and discovered that planets orbited the sun in ellipses rather than circular orbits.  Kepler was a brilliant mathematician, astronomer and devout Christian who cited God many times in all of his writings.  He felt it was his Christian duty to understand the creation of God, the universe.  He also felt that man, being in the image of God, was fully capable of understanding the universe.  Like Plato and Pythagoras, Kepler felt that God must have created the universe according to a mathematical plan.

[[Johannes Kepler]] (1571-1630), a Protestant in Germany, built on Copernicus’s work and discovered that planets orbited the sun in ellipses rather than circular orbits.  Kepler was a brilliant mathematician, astronomer and devout Christian who cited God many times in all of his writings.  He felt it was his Christian duty to understand the creation of God, the universe.  He also felt that man, being in the image of God, was fully capable of understanding the universe.  Like Plato and Pythagoras, Kepler felt that God must have created the universe according to a mathematical plan.

Galileo (1564-1642) was a contemporary of Kepler who lived in Catholic Italy.  Galileo was not as bright as Kepler or Copernicus, and was a bit of an entertaining showman who made a lively party guest.  He taught geometry to medical students so that they could use astronomy and astrology in the practice of medicine.  Galileo’s primary scientific contribution was his improvement on the telescope in order to view celestial bodies.

[[Galileo]] (1564-1642) was a contemporary of Kepler who lived in Catholic Italy.  Galileo was not as bright as Kepler or Copernicus, and was a bit of an entertaining showman who made a lively party guest.  He taught geometry to medical students so that they could use astronomy and astrology in the practice of medicine.  Galileo’s primary scientific contribution was his improvement on the telescope in order to view celestial bodies.

But the Catholic Church was then in a struggle with Protestantism, which was critical of Copernicus’s theory of the earth revolving around the sun.  In 1616, the Catholic Church officially prohibited teaching Copernicus’s theory as fact, although there was no objection to learning it as a mathematical theory.  Galileo, however, felt Copernicus was correct and wanted to teach his theory.  He had met with Pope Urban VIII on numerous occasions and felt that the Church would not object to Galileo’s publishing the Copernican theory about the universe.

But the Catholic Church was then in a struggle with Protestantism, which was critical of Copernicus’s theory of the earth revolving around the sun.  In 1616, the Catholic Church officially prohibited teaching Copernicus’s theory as fact, although there was no objection to learning it as a mathematical theory.  Galileo, however, felt Copernicus was correct and wanted to teach his theory.  He had met with Pope Urban VIII on numerous occasions and felt that the Church would not object to Galileo’s publishing the Copernican theory about the universe.

In the book’s climax, Salviati supposedly proves the Copernican system by citing the movement of the tides.  This was completely false and already disproved by Kepler.

In the book’s climax, Salviati supposedly proves the Copernican system by citing the movement of the tides.  This was completely false and already disproved by Kepler.

Catholic Church officials were furious about this book and the Inquisition banned its sale.  Galileo was summoned to Rome.  Unlike Luther, Galileo remained a Catholic and fully accepted whatever judgment the Church would render against him.  His “trial” was a bit of a farce, probably put on for show more than anything, with Galileo living in plush quarters at all times.  At the end of the trial Galileo required to live in a house where the Church could keep an eye on him, and was not imprisoned.  Galileo then continued his scientific work but was kept from embarrassing the Church further.  Galileo never split from the Church and completely accepted his punishment.

Catholic Church officials were furious about this book and the Inquisition banned its sale.  Galileo was summoned to Rome.  Unlike Luther, Galileo remained a Catholic and fully accepted whatever judgment the Church would render against him.  His “trial” was a bit of a farce, probably put on for show more than anything, with Galileo living in plush quarters at all times.  At the end of the trial Galileo was required to live in a house where the Church could keep an eye on him, and was not imprisoned.  Galileo then continued his scientific work but was kept from embarrassing the Church further.  Galileo never split from the Church and completely accepted his punishment.

There were other noteworthy scientists during this era.  Vesalius advanced the understanding of anatomy for medical doctors.  John Harvey explained the circulatory system in human anatomy.  Rene Descartes was a French mathematician and philosopher who discovered analytical geometry and famously declared, “I think therefore I am.”  Francis Bacon promoted research based on experimentation.

There were other noteworthy scientists during this era.  [[Vesalius]] advanced the understanding of anatomy for medical doctors.  [[John Harvey]] explained the circulatory system in human anatomy.  [[Rene Descartes]] was a French mathematician and philosopher who discovered [[analytical geometry]] and famously declared, “I think, therefore I am.”  [[Francis Bacon]] promoted research based on experimentation.

Then there was Sir Isaac Newton, who after Jesus Christ was perhaps the most influential man who ever lived.  If Newton were alive today, then he would be described as a Christian fundamentalist.  Everything Newton did was inspired and motivated by his powerful faith in the Word of God in the Bible.  Abandoned by his own mother, Newton had an inferiority complex that drove him to achieve more and more.  In one summer he discovered the laws of gravity and also calculus, and the world has never been the same since.

Then there was Sir [[Isaac Newton]], who after Jesus Christ was perhaps the most influential man who ever lived.  If Newton were alive today, then he would be described as a Christian fundamentalist.  Everything Newton did was inspired and motivated by his powerful faith in the Word of God in the Bible.  Abandoned by his own mother, Newton had an [[inferiority complex]] that drove him to achieve more and more.  In one summer he discovered the laws of [[gravity]] and also [[calculus]], and the world has never been the same since.

Like most great advances in knowledge in world history, Newton discovered and explained something that was unseen:  the invisible force of gravity.  Newton proposed action-at-a-distance, whereby one object attracts another through an invisible force of gravity.  Newton was ridiculed for proposing that something unseen could act at a distance and influence something else millions of miles away from it.  Yet Newton was right.  Speaking of the world in which live, Newton once said, “Why not try to understand it?”  Newton understood it and explained it to the rest of us, and we are forever grateful.

Like most other men who made great advances in knowledge in world history, Newton discovered and explained something that was unseen:  the invisible force of gravity.  Newton proposed action-at-a-distance, whereby one object attracts another through an invisible force of gravity.  Newton was ridiculed for proposing that something unseen could act at a distance and influence something else millions of miles away from it.  Yet Newton was right.  Speaking of the world in which live, Newton once said, “Why not try to understand it?”  Newton understood it and explained it to the rest of us, and we are forever grateful.

A German contemporary of Newton, Gottfried Leibniz, deserves mention.  Like Newton, Leibniz was a devout Christian.  In fact, Leibniz was a Lutheran who dreamed of reuniting that denomination with the Catholic Church.  Leibniz was also a brilliant mathematician who developed calculus independent of Newton.  It was Leibniz, not Newton, who first published the notation for the integral:    f(x) dx.  An ugly dispute developed between Newton and Leibniz over who discovered calculus first.  Most English-speaking historians give the credit to Newton but bias may play a role in that.  The world certainly benefited immensely from Leibniz as well as Newton.

A German contemporary of Newton, Gottfried [[Leibniz]], deserves mention.  Like Newton, Leibniz was a devout Christian.  In fact, Leibniz was a Lutheran who dreamed of reuniting that denomination with the Catholic Church.  Leibniz was also a brilliant mathematician who developed calculus independent of Newton.  It was Leibniz, not Newton, who first published the notation for the integral:    f(x) dx.  An ugly dispute developed between Newton and Leibniz over who discovered calculus first.  Most English-speaking historians give the credit to Newton but bias may play a role in that.  The world certainly benefited immensely from Leibniz as well as Newton.

==The Enlightenment==

==The Enlightenment==