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Line 40: − + − Oppenheimer’s brother Frank, and Frank’s wife Jackie, were also active members of the [[Communist Party]],<ref>“[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,800436,00.html The Brothers],” ''Time'', June 27, 1949</ref> as was even Oppenheimer's landlady; in addition, several of Oppenheimer’s closest friends and protégés among his graduate students at Berkeley, including [[Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz]], Joe Weinberg, David Bohm, Philip Morrison and Bernard Peters were Communist Party members.<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 147</ref>+ Line 65:
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Spelling, grammar, and general cleanup, typos fixed: … → ..., Oppenheimer’s → Oppenheimer's (6)
At Caltech, Oppenheimer had befriended Linus Pauling, and wrote him poems Pauling found "troubling," which included allusions to pederasty. Pauling broke off the friendship after Oppenheimer made a pass at his wife, Ava Helen Pauling, who told her husband, "I think he was in love with you."<ref>Thomas Hager, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FNXaAAAAMAAJ Force of nature: the life of Linus Pauling]'' (Simon & Schuster, 1995) ISBN 0684809095, pp. 150-152</ref> At Berkeley, rumors circulated of an affair between Oppenheimer and a homosexual student who lived with him,<ref>Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBNpeh2BaG4C In the shadow of the bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the moral responsibility of the scientist]'' (Princeton University Press, 2000) ISBN 0691049890, p. 203, n. 69. Oppenheimer's colleague Abrahaim Pais wrote that "I was convinced that strong latent homosexuality was an important ingredient in Robert's emotional makeup." (Abraham Pais, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XrYrAAAAYAAJ A tale of two continents: a physicist's life in a turbulent world]'' [Oxford University Press, 1997] ISBN 0198501994, p. 241) One biographer comments, "it seems fairly likely that sexual ambivalence was one aspect of Oppenheimer's youthful problems of identity." Charles Thorpe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BWek8zJ-U7IC Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2006) ISBN 0226798453, p. 51</ref> but in 1936 he began an affair with Jean Tatlock, a medical student at Stanford<ref>Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 236</ref> and daughter of Oppenheimer's fellow Berkeley professor John S.P. Tatlock,<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 109</ref> a contributor to ''[[Nation (magazine)|The Nation]]''.<ref>[http://www.thenation.com/authors/john-s-p-tatlock Author Bios: John S.P. Tatlock, thenation.com]</ref> Then, In 1939, Oppenheimer began an affair with [http://foia.fbi.gov/oppenheimer_katherine/oppenheimer_katherine_part01.pdf Katherine "Kitty" Puening Dallet Harrison]. After moving in with Oppenheimer and becoming pregnant,<ref>David Cassidy, ''J. Robert Oppenheimer and the American Century'' (Pi Press: 2004) ISBN 0-13-147996-2, pp. 186-187</ref> Kitty abandoned her third husband,<ref>Richard Rhodes, "[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/15/books/review/15RHODESL.html Nuclear Options]," ''The New York Times'', May 15, 2005</ref> a cancer researcher at Caltech,<ref>[[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: 214</ref> to marry Oppenheimer in 1940, though he continued his affair with Tatlock until at least June 1943. During [[World War II]], while married to Kitty, Oppenheimer began an affair with another married woman, Ruth Tolman, the wife of Caltech physicist Richard Tolman, whom Oppenheimer testified was "a very close and dear friend of mine."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 363</ref> The affair "devastated Richard Tolman,"<ref>C. Mott Woolley, "[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Front_Page/HE10Aa02.html The tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer]," ''Asia Times'', May 10, 2006</ref> who died, according to [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1939/lawrence.html Nobel Prize-winning] physicist Ernest Lawrence, "of a broken heart."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 365</ref> Kitty took to drinking.<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 407-409</ref>
At Caltech, Oppenheimer had befriended Linus Pauling, and wrote him poems Pauling found "troubling," which included allusions to pederasty. Pauling broke off the friendship after Oppenheimer made a pass at his wife, Ava Helen Pauling, who told her husband, "I think he was in love with you."<ref>Thomas Hager, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FNXaAAAAMAAJ Force of nature: the life of Linus Pauling]'' (Simon & Schuster, 1995) ISBN 0684809095, pp. 150-152</ref> At Berkeley, rumors circulated of an affair between Oppenheimer and a homosexual student who lived with him,<ref>Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBNpeh2BaG4C In the shadow of the bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the moral responsibility of the scientist]'' (Princeton University Press, 2000) ISBN 0691049890, p. 203, n. 69. Oppenheimer's colleague Abrahaim Pais wrote that "I was convinced that strong latent homosexuality was an important ingredient in Robert's emotional makeup." (Abraham Pais, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XrYrAAAAYAAJ A tale of two continents: a physicist's life in a turbulent world]'' [Oxford University Press, 1997] ISBN 0198501994, p. 241) One biographer comments, "it seems fairly likely that sexual ambivalence was one aspect of Oppenheimer's youthful problems of identity." Charles Thorpe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BWek8zJ-U7IC Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2006) ISBN 0226798453, p. 51</ref> but in 1936 he began an affair with Jean Tatlock, a medical student at Stanford<ref>Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 236</ref> and daughter of Oppenheimer's fellow Berkeley professor John S.P. Tatlock,<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 109</ref> a contributor to ''[[Nation (magazine)|The Nation]]''.<ref>[http://www.thenation.com/authors/john-s-p-tatlock Author Bios: John S.P. Tatlock, thenation.com]</ref> Then, In 1939, Oppenheimer began an affair with [http://foia.fbi.gov/oppenheimer_katherine/oppenheimer_katherine_part01.pdf Katherine "Kitty" Puening Dallet Harrison]. After moving in with Oppenheimer and becoming pregnant,<ref>David Cassidy, ''J. Robert Oppenheimer and the American Century'' (Pi Press: 2004) ISBN 0-13-147996-2, pp. 186-187</ref> Kitty abandoned her third husband,<ref>Richard Rhodes, "[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/15/books/review/15RHODESL.html Nuclear Options]," ''The New York Times'', May 15, 2005</ref> a cancer researcher at Caltech,<ref>[[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: 214</ref> to marry Oppenheimer in 1940, though he continued his affair with Tatlock until at least June 1943. During [[World War II]], while married to Kitty, Oppenheimer began an affair with another married woman, Ruth Tolman, the wife of Caltech physicist Richard Tolman, whom Oppenheimer testified was "a very close and dear friend of mine."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 363</ref> The affair "devastated Richard Tolman,"<ref>C. Mott Woolley, "[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Front_Page/HE10Aa02.html The tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer]," ''Asia Times'', May 10, 2006</ref> who died, according to [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1939/lawrence.html Nobel Prize-winning] physicist Ernest Lawrence, "of a broken heart."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 365</ref> Kitty took to drinking.<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 407-409</ref>
Oppenheimer had a history of pro-Communist associations, starting at Caltech with Pauling, a "long-serving [[USSR|Soviet]] tool."<ref>Stephen Schwartz, "[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=23794 Communists and Islamic Extremists - Then and Now]," FrontPageMagazine.com, July 8, 2002. A 1951 investigation by HUAC, then chaired by Democrat John Stephens Wood, concluded that Pauling was "primarily engrossed in placing his scientific attainments at the service of a host of organizations which have in common their complete subservience to the Communist Party, USA, and the Soviet Union. Professor Pauling has not deviated a hair's breadth from this pattern of loyalty to the Communist cause since 1946." (House Committee on Un-American Activities, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/14/items/reportoncommunis00unit/reportoncommunis00unit_bw.pdf Report on the Communist "Peace" Offensive, the Attempt to Disarm and Defeat America]'' [Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1951], p. 86) In 1970, the Soviet government would reward Pauling for his long service [http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1970n.13.html with the Lenin prize].</ref> Later, at Berkeley, Oppenheimer's mistress Tatlock was a [[Communist]],<ref>[[#refPK06|Pais, Crease 2006]]: 36</ref> as was his wife Kitty,<ref>[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 122. Cf. [[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 270</ref> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/alba_032/bioghist.html widow of Communist political commissar Joe Dallet], killed in the [[Spanish Civil War]]<ref>[http://foia.fbi.gov/filelink.html?file=/oppenheimer_katherine/oppenheimer_katherine_part01.pdf Hoover to Lansdale], May 23, 1944 (FBI file: Katherine Oppenheimer, PDF p. 2)</ref> (perhaps by his Soviet superiors, or fragged by his own men, according to various rumors).<ref>William Herrick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vKWZ9Vo69GwC Jumping the Line: The Adventures and Misadventures of an American Radical]'' (AK Press, 2001) ISBN 1902593421, p. 237</ref> In January 1944, Tatlock would be found drowned in her bathtub, in circumstances termed "suspicious."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 232, 253.</ref> Some writers suspect Soviet involvement in Tatlock's death. Stephen Schwartz mentions "Khyron"—the Cyrillic transliteration of Chyron, ferryman of the dead in ancient Greek mythology<ref>Stephen Schwartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PvoUAAAAYAAJ From West To East: California and the Making of the American Mind]'' (Free Press, 1998) ISBN 0684831341, p. 380. Cf. Cornell Simpson, ''[https://www.amazon.com/death-James-Forrestal-Cornell-Simpson/dp/B0006BOU86 The Death of James Forrestal]'' (Western Islands, 1966) ASIN B0006BOU86)</ref>—which was also [[Grigory Kheifets|Kheifets]]' [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Venona-San%20Francisco-KGB.pdf code name].
Oppenheimer had a history of pro-Communist associations, starting at Caltech with Pauling, a "long-serving [[USSR|Soviet]] tool."<ref>Stephen Schwartz, "[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=23794 Communists and Islamic Extremists - Then and Now]," FrontPageMagazine.com, July 8, 2002. A 1951 investigation by HUAC, then chaired by Democrat John Stephens Wood, concluded that Pauling was "primarily engrossed in placing his scientific attainments at the service of a host of organizations which have in common their complete subservience to the Communist Party, USA, and the Soviet Union. Professor Pauling has not deviated a hair's breadth from this pattern of loyalty to the Communist cause since 1946." (House Committee on Un-American Activities, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/14/items/reportoncommunis00unit/reportoncommunis00unit_bw.pdf Report on the Communist "Peace" Offensive, the Attempt to Disarm and Defeat America]'' [Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1951], p. 86) In 1970, the Soviet government would reward Pauling for his long service [http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1970n.13.html with the Lenin prize].</ref> Later, at Berkeley, Oppenheimer's mistress Tatlock was a [[Communist]],<ref>[[#refPK06|Pais, Crease 2006]]: 36</ref> as was his wife Kitty,<ref>[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 122. Cf. [[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 270</ref> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/alba_032/bioghist.html widow of Communist political commissar Joe Dallet], killed in the [[Spanish Civil War]]<ref>[http://foia.fbi.gov/filelink.html?file=/oppenheimer_katherine/oppenheimer_katherine_part01.pdf Hoover to Lansdale], May 23, 1944 (FBI file: Katherine Oppenheimer, PDF p. 2)</ref> (perhaps by his Soviet superiors, or fragged by his own men, according to various rumors).<ref>William Herrick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vKWZ9Vo69GwC Jumping the Line: The Adventures and Misadventures of an American Radical]'' (AK Press, 2001) ISBN 1902593421, p. 237</ref> In January 1944, Tatlock would be found drowned in her bathtub, in circumstances termed "suspicious."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 232, 253.</ref> Some writers suspect Soviet involvement in Tatlock's death. Stephen Schwartz mentions "Khyron"—the Cyrillic transliteration of Chyron, ferryman of the dead in ancient Greek mythology<ref>Stephen Schwartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PvoUAAAAYAAJ From West To East: California and the Making of the American Mind]'' (Free Press, 1998) ISBN 0684831341, p. 380. Cf. Cornell Simpson, ''[https://www.amazon.com/death-James-Forrestal-Cornell-Simpson/dp/B0006BOU86 The Death of James Forrestal]'' (Western Islands, 1966. ASIN B0006BOU86)</ref>—which was also [[Grigory Kheifets|Kheifets]]' [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Venona-San%20Francisco-KGB.pdf code name].
Oppenheimer's brother Frank, and Frank's wife Jackie, were also active members of the [[Communist Party]],<ref>“[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,800436,00.html The Brothers],” ''Time'', June 27, 1949</ref> as was even Oppenheimer's landlady; in addition, several of Oppenheimer's closest friends and protégés among his graduate students at Berkeley, including [[Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz]], Joe Weinberg, David Bohm, Philip Morrison and Bernard Peters were Communist Party members.<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 147</ref>
During the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] (August 1939-June 1941), the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] expanded its surveillance of suspected Nazis to include [[Communist Party]] leaders.<ref>As soon as Roosevelt was inaugurated in March 1933, FDR's Secretary of State Cordell Hull told the FBI to investigate German Nazi groups [https://web.archive.org/web/20031128111253/http://www.uvm.edu/~apreston/Taken_Into_Custody.html in the United States]; the following year Roosevelt ordered the Bureau to investigate "the activity of the Nazi movement [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book3/html/ChurchB3_0200a.htm in this country]." During the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]], when the [[Soviet Union]] was a [[Nazi]] ally in the invasion of Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Romania (and Nazi collaborator in the conquest of France and [[Battle of Britain]]), this investigation was expanded to include the [[CPUSA]]. Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mcHJCCUcm-oC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300061838, p. 11</ref> In 1940, William Schneiderman, the California state chairman of the Communist Party, met with [[Isaac Folkoff]],<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 185 (PDF 195)</ref> West Coast liaison between the Communist Party and [[NKVD|Soviet intelligence]],<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 357</ref> at the home of then-secret (later confessed) Communist<ref>[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/document1.html Chevalier to Oppenheimer, July 23, 1964] (Robert Oppenheimer papers, Library of Congress)</ref> [[Haakon Chevalier]]. Also present at this meeting, according to FBI surveillance, was J. Robert Oppenheimer.<ref>FBI Report: J. Robert Oppenheimer, March 28, 1941, FBI file: J. Robert Oppenheimer, Internal Security - C, Sec. 1 (not paginated). Cf. [[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 228 (PDF 237)</ref> The following year, Oppenheimer was added to [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s Custodial Detention Index,<ref>On September 6, 1939, in the wake of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]], [[Franklin Roosevelt|FDR]] directed the FBI "to take charge of investigative work in matters relating to espionage..." (Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (Office of National Counterintelligence Executive), [http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol1/Vol1Chap4.pdf Vol. 1, Ch. 4], p. 177) Three days later, FDR created the Emergency Detention Program (EDP), giving the Justice Department the power to “arrest and detain those persons deemed dangerous in the event of war, invasion, or insurrection in and of a foreign enemy.” (Athan Theoharis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hguHAAAAMAAJ Spying on Americans: political surveillance from Hoover to the Huston plan]'' [Temple University Press, 1978] ISBN 0877221413, p. 40) (The EDP would provide the basis for Roosevelt's wartime internment of Japanese, Germans and Italians in the United States during World War II.) That month, in a reference to the [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/saccov/redscare.html Red Scare] of 1919, Attorney General Cullen Murphy stated, “There will be no repetition of the confusion and laxity and indifference of [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book3/html/ChurchB3_0206a.htm twenty years ago].” The CDI originated the following year in the Justice Department's [http://www.gaic.info/lps/LP%201%20Overview.pdf Special Defense Unit] (previously known as the Neutrality Laws Unit), later renamed the [https://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/finding-aid/civilian/rg-60.html War Division]. During the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]], the list was expanded to include Communists.</ref> listed as “Nationalistic Tendency: Communist.”<ref>Custodial Detention Memorandum, May 27, 1941, FBI file: J. Robert Oppenheimer, Internal Security - C, Sec. 1 (not paginated)</ref>
During the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] (August 1939-June 1941), the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] expanded its surveillance of suspected Nazis to include [[Communist Party]] leaders.<ref>As soon as Roosevelt was inaugurated in March 1933, FDR's Secretary of State Cordell Hull told the FBI to investigate German Nazi groups [https://web.archive.org/web/20031128111253/http://www.uvm.edu/~apreston/Taken_Into_Custody.html in the United States]; the following year Roosevelt ordered the Bureau to investigate "the activity of the Nazi movement [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book3/html/ChurchB3_0200a.htm in this country]." During the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]], when the [[Soviet Union]] was a [[Nazi]] ally in the invasion of Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Romania (and Nazi collaborator in the conquest of France and [[Battle of Britain]]), this investigation was expanded to include the [[CPUSA]]. Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mcHJCCUcm-oC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300061838, p. 11</ref> In 1940, William Schneiderman, the California state chairman of the Communist Party, met with [[Isaac Folkoff]],<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 185 (PDF 195)</ref> West Coast liaison between the Communist Party and [[NKVD|Soviet intelligence]],<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 357</ref> at the home of then-secret (later confessed) Communist<ref>[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/document1.html Chevalier to Oppenheimer, July 23, 1964] (Robert Oppenheimer papers, Library of Congress)</ref> [[Haakon Chevalier]]. Also present at this meeting, according to FBI surveillance, was J. Robert Oppenheimer.<ref>FBI Report: J. Robert Oppenheimer, March 28, 1941, FBI file: J. Robert Oppenheimer, Internal Security - C, Sec. 1 (not paginated). Cf. [[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 228 (PDF 237)</ref> The following year, Oppenheimer was added to [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s Custodial Detention Index,<ref>On September 6, 1939, in the wake of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]], [[Franklin Roosevelt|FDR]] directed the FBI "to take charge of investigative work in matters relating to espionage..." (Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (Office of National Counterintelligence Executive), [http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol1/Vol1Chap4.pdf Vol. 1, Ch. 4], p. 177) Three days later, FDR created the Emergency Detention Program (EDP), giving the Justice Department the power to “arrest and detain those persons deemed dangerous in the event of war, invasion, or insurrection in and of a foreign enemy.” (Athan Theoharis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hguHAAAAMAAJ Spying on Americans: political surveillance from Hoover to the Huston plan]'' [Temple University Press, 1978] ISBN 0877221413, p. 40) (The EDP would provide the basis for Roosevelt's wartime internment of Japanese, Germans and Italians in the United States during World War II.) That month, in a reference to the [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/saccov/redscare.html Red Scare] of 1919, Attorney General Cullen Murphy stated, “There will be no repetition of the confusion and laxity and indifference of [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book3/html/ChurchB3_0206a.htm twenty years ago].” The CDI originated the following year in the Justice Department's [http://www.gaic.info/lps/LP%201%20Overview.pdf Special Defense Unit] (previously known as the Neutrality Laws Unit), later renamed the [https://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/finding-aid/civilian/rg-60.html War Division]. During the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]], the list was expanded to include Communists.</ref> listed as “Nationalistic Tendency: Communist.”<ref>Custodial Detention Memorandum, May 27, 1941, FBI file: J. Robert Oppenheimer, Internal Security - C, Sec. 1 (not paginated)</ref>
In addition, if he was not a Communist, Oppenheimer fooled his close friends in this small, secretive group into thinking he was. According to Chevalier, “O. had been, from 1937 to 1943, a CP member, which I knew directly.”<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 431</ref> He added that he and Oppenheimer belonged to “the same unit of the CP from 1938 to 1942.”<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 341, n. 35</ref> Griffiths, who served as the Communist Party's “liaison with the Faculty group at the University of California,” confirmed that among the “members of the communist group” at Berkeley were “[[Haakon Chevalier]] of the French Department and Robert Oppenheimer of Physics.”<ref>Gordon Griffiths' ''[http://brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_3.html Venturing Outside the Ivory Tower: The Political Autobiography of a College Professor]'' (excerpts), Brotherhood of the Bomb</ref>
In addition, if he was not a Communist, Oppenheimer fooled his close friends in this small, secretive group into thinking he was. According to Chevalier, “O. had been, from 1937 to 1943, a CP member, which I knew directly.”<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 431</ref> He added that he and Oppenheimer belonged to “the same unit of the CP from 1938 to 1942.”<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 341, n. 35</ref> Griffiths, who served as the Communist Party's “liaison with the Faculty group at the University of California,” confirmed that among the “members of the communist group” at Berkeley were “[[Haakon Chevalier]] of the French Department and Robert Oppenheimer of Physics.”<ref>Gordon Griffiths' ''[http://brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_3.html Venturing Outside the Ivory Tower: The Political Autobiography of a College Professor]'' (excerpts), Brotherhood of the Bomb</ref>
Oppenheimer was the primary author of a report signed “College Faculties Committee, Communist Party of California,” which he also paid to have printed, said Chevalier.<ref>Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 267</ref> It defended the Soviet invasion of Finland (during the Nazi-Soviet pact), calling [[President]] [[Roosevelt]] a "counter-revolutionary war-monger."<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 31-32</ref> The report contains unusual wording characteristic of Oppenheimer’s writing, suggesting that Oppenheimer might at least have "had a hand in editing a draft," according to [http://www.tufts.edu/home/feature/?p=sherwin historian] Martin J. Sherwin.<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 144-145</ref> [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] physics professor emeritus (and former Oppenheimer pupil) Philip Morrison, an ex-Communist,<ref>Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82d Cong., 2d sess., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SB65AAAAIAAJ Subversive Influence in the Educational Process'', Parts 7-14] (Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1955), p. 899</ref> confirmed that in 1939 (during the Pact) he delivered to the printers a pamphlet Oppenheimer wrote (and paid for) taking “the strict Party line in defending the Soviet invasion of Finland.”<ref>Gregg Herken, "[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/17008 The Oppenheimer Case: An Exchange]," ''The New York Review of Books'', Vol. 51, No. 5 (March 25, 2004)</ref>
Oppenheimer was the primary author of a report signed “College Faculties Committee, Communist Party of California,” which he also paid to have printed, said Chevalier.<ref>Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 267</ref> It defended the Soviet invasion of Finland (during the Nazi-Soviet pact), calling [[President]] [[Roosevelt]] a "counter-revolutionary war-monger."<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 31-32</ref> The report contains unusual wording characteristic of Oppenheimer's writing, suggesting that Oppenheimer might at least have "had a hand in editing a draft," according to [http://www.tufts.edu/home/feature/?p=sherwin historian] Martin J. Sherwin.<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 144-145</ref> [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] physics professor emeritus (and former Oppenheimer pupil) Philip Morrison, an ex-Communist,<ref>Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82d Cong., 2d sess., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SB65AAAAIAAJ Subversive Influence in the Educational Process'', Parts 7-14] (Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1955), p. 899</ref> confirmed that in 1939 (during the Pact) he delivered to the printers a pamphlet Oppenheimer wrote (and paid for) taking “the strict Party line in defending the Soviet invasion of Finland.”<ref>Gregg Herken, "[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/17008 The Oppenheimer Case: An Exchange]," ''The New York Review of Books'', Vol. 51, No. 5 (March 25, 2004)</ref>
====Alameda County Communist Party====
====Alameda County Communist Party====
{{cquote|Due to complications of the operational situation in the USA, dissolution of the [[Comintern]]<ref>In 1943, Stalin officially dissolved the [[Comintern]] ([http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm Dissolution of the Communist International], Marxists Internet Archive), forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States. ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.publications&doc_id=43900&group_id=13349 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars). The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern ([http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989), which included “control over the CPUSA,” (Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507, p. 48)—gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct NKVD control. [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface], Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)</ref> and explanations of Comrades Zarubin and Kheifets on the Mironov affair<ref>In 1943, Lt. Col. Vasili Mironov, an NKVD officer in the Washington, DC ''rezidentura'', sent an [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2005/august/history_082605 unsigned letter] to [[J. Edgar Hoover]], exposing the intelligence activities of the [[Vasily Zarubin|Zarubin]]s and [[Grigory Kheifets|Kheifets]].</ref> it is expedient to immediately sever contacts of leaders and activists of the American Communist Party with scientists and specialists engaged in work on uranium.<ref>[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.document&identifier=5034E2FB-96B6-175C-967BCF8290DD3AD9&sort=Collection&item=Intelligence%20Operations%20in%20the%20Cold%20War Merkulov to Beria, 2 October 1944], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</ref>}}
{{cquote|Due to complications of the operational situation in the USA, dissolution of the [[Comintern]]<ref>In 1943, Stalin officially dissolved the [[Comintern]] ([http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm Dissolution of the Communist International], Marxists Internet Archive), forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States. ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.publications&doc_id=43900&group_id=13349 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars). The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern ([http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989), which included “control over the CPUSA,” (Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507, p. 48)—gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct NKVD control. [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface], Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)</ref> and explanations of Comrades Zarubin and Kheifets on the Mironov affair<ref>In 1943, Lt. Col. Vasili Mironov, an NKVD officer in the Washington, DC ''rezidentura'', sent an [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2005/august/history_082605 unsigned letter] to [[J. Edgar Hoover]], exposing the intelligence activities of the [[Vasily Zarubin|Zarubin]]s and [[Grigory Kheifets|Kheifets]].</ref> it is expedient to immediately sever contacts of leaders and activists of the American Communist Party with scientists and specialists engaged in work on uranium.<ref>[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.document&identifier=5034E2FB-96B6-175C-967BCF8290DD3AD9&sort=Collection&item=Intelligence%20Operations%20in%20the%20Cold%20War Merkulov to Beria, 2 October 1944], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</ref>}}
According to Sudoplatov, "My deputy, Leonid Eitingon, and I also instructed Kheifetz and Semyonov to turn over to our old moles all their confidential contacts with friendly sources around Oppenheimer in California."<ref>George J. Church, "[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980756,00.html Did Oppenheimer Really Help Moscow?]" ''Time'', Vol. 143, No. 21 (May 23, 1994), p. 68</ref> A 1945 Soviet code-message refers to instructions to “send GURON [‘Huron’]<ref>Huron was identified in the [[Gorsky memo]] in 1948 by [[Anatoly Gorsky]] (NKVD ''rezident'' in Washington in 1945) as Byron T. Darling, who would be fired from a post as associate professor of physics at Ohio State University in 1953 when he refused to answer a question about his Communist Party ties before HUAC.</ref> to CHICAGO to re-establish contact with VEKSEL….” The National Security Agency’s [[Venona project]] analysts identified VEKSEL as “Probably Dr. Julius Robert Oppenheimer.”<ref>[http://www.nsa.gov/venona/releases/21_Mar_1945_R1_p2.gif Venona 256 Moscow to New York], 21 March 1945</ref>
According to Sudoplatov, "My deputy, Leonid Eitingon, and I also instructed Kheifetz and Semyonov to turn over to our old moles all their confidential contacts with friendly sources around Oppenheimer in California."<ref>George J. Church, "[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980756,00.html Did Oppenheimer Really Help Moscow?]" ''Time'', Vol. 143, No. 21 (May 23, 1994), p. 68</ref> A 1945 Soviet code-message refers to instructions to “send GURON [‘Huron’]<ref>Huron was identified in the [[Gorsky memo]] in 1948 by [[Anatoly Gorsky]] (NKVD ''rezident'' in Washington in 1945) as Byron T. Darling, who would be fired from a post as associate professor of physics at Ohio State University in 1953 when he refused to answer a question about his Communist Party ties before HUAC.</ref> to CHICAGO to re-establish contact with VEKSEL....” The National Security Agency’s [[Venona project]] analysts identified VEKSEL as “Probably Dr. Julius Robert Oppenheimer.”<ref>[http://www.nsa.gov/venona/releases/21_Mar_1945_R1_p2.gif Venona 256 Moscow to New York], 21 March 1945</ref>
== Espionage at Los Alamos ==
== Espionage at Los Alamos ==
====The Chevalier incident====
====The Chevalier incident====
In 1943, the Soviets tried to establish direct contact with Oppenheimer. Ivanov instructed George Eltenton (a British-born Soviet intelligence source code-named “Dorin”)<ref>[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 48</ref> to feel Oppenheimer out about covertly leaking American nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union, according to Eltenton’s statement to the FBI.<ref>[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 548</ref> Eltenton said he asked Chevalier to pitch the idea to Oppenheimer.<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 200. Cf. [[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 92</ref> Chevalier approached Oppenheimer in February or March 1943, but Oppenheimer failed to report the incident for some eight months.<ref>Jennet Conant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DkXvYAzoobYC 109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the secret city of Los Alamos],'' (Simon and Schuster, 2005) ISBN 0743250079, p. 175</ref>
In 1943, the Soviets tried to establish direct contact with Oppenheimer. Ivanov instructed George Eltenton (a British-born Soviet intelligence source code-named “Dorin”)<ref>[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 48</ref> to feel Oppenheimer out about covertly leaking American nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union, according to Eltenton's statement to the FBI.<ref>[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 548</ref> Eltenton said he asked Chevalier to pitch the idea to Oppenheimer.<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 200. Cf. [[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 92</ref> Chevalier approached Oppenheimer in February or March 1943, but Oppenheimer failed to report the incident for some eight months.<ref>Jennet Conant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DkXvYAzoobYC 109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the secret city of Los Alamos],'' (Simon and Schuster, 2005) ISBN 0743250079, p. 175</ref>
Overruling the objections of security officers, according to Groves, on July 20 he issued written orders that:
Overruling the objections of security officers, according to Groves, on July 20 he issued written orders that:
When nuclear physicist [[Edward Teller]], a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Jewish]] refugee from [[Nazi Germany]]<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/10/obituaries/10TELL.html Edward Teller Is Dead at 95; Fierce Architect of H-Bomb,]" ''The New York Times'', September 10, 2003</ref> known as the "father of the H-bomb,"<ref>Francie Grace, "[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/09/10/tech/main572437.shtml 'Father Of The H-Bomb' Dies At 95]," CBS News, September 10, 2003</ref> had sought Oppenheimer's support to build an H-bomb at Los Alamos in 1945, Oppenheimer had refused. Now, argued Teller, the need for an H-bomb had become urgent. Oppenheimer disagreed, signing his name to an official statement that "a super bomb should never be produced."<ref>[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 401</ref> With Fermi and others, he lobbied Henry Wallace to stop H-bomb development; Wallace complied, issuing a statement that “we should prefer defeat in war to victory obtained at the expense of the enormous human disaster that would be caused by its determined use.”<ref>Andrew Jon Rotter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_KOtRIZEDMC Hiroshima: the world's bomb]'' (Oxford University Press, 2008) ISBN 0192804375, p. 256</ref> As Teller would later testify:
When nuclear physicist [[Edward Teller]], a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Jewish]] refugee from [[Nazi Germany]]<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/10/obituaries/10TELL.html Edward Teller Is Dead at 95; Fierce Architect of H-Bomb,]" ''The New York Times'', September 10, 2003</ref> known as the "father of the H-bomb,"<ref>Francie Grace, "[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/09/10/tech/main572437.shtml 'Father Of The H-Bomb' Dies At 95]," CBS News, September 10, 2003</ref> had sought Oppenheimer's support to build an H-bomb at Los Alamos in 1945, Oppenheimer had refused. Now, argued Teller, the need for an H-bomb had become urgent. Oppenheimer disagreed, signing his name to an official statement that "a super bomb should never be produced."<ref>[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 401</ref> With Fermi and others, he lobbied Henry Wallace to stop H-bomb development; Wallace complied, issuing a statement that “we should prefer defeat in war to victory obtained at the expense of the enormous human disaster that would be caused by its determined use.”<ref>Andrew Jon Rotter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_KOtRIZEDMC Hiroshima: the world's bomb]'' (Oxford University Press, 2008) ISBN 0192804375, p. 256</ref> As Teller would later testify:
{{cquote|In a great number of cases I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act... in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand. I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated. To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better, and therefore trust more... If it is a question of wisdom and judgment, as demonstrated by actions since 1945, then I would say one would be wiser [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/tellertestimony.html not to grant clearance].<ref>Although he made no accusations, Teller's testimony against Oppenheimer made him [http://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/september24/tellerobit-924.html a pariah]. The left accused him of smearing an innocent man and [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tel0bio-1 blamed him] for ending Oppenheimer's career. The hearing transcript contradicts that conclusion, but to some, Teller’s anticommunist views alone [http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/edward-teller-rip were enough] to justify bitter feelings against him. Many [http://whyfiles.org/186ed_teller/4.html never forgave] him.</ref>}}
{{cquote|In a great number of cases I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act... in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand. I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated. To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better, and therefore trust more... If it is a question of wisdom and judgment, as demonstrated by actions since 1945, then I would say one would be wiser [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/tellertestimony.html not to grant clearance].<ref>Although he made no accusations, Teller's testimony against Oppenheimer made him [http://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/september24/tellerobit-924.html a pariah]. The left accused him of smearing an innocent man and [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tel0bio-1 blamed him] for ending Oppenheimer's career. The hearing transcript contradicts that conclusion, but to some, Teller’s anticommunist views alone [http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/edward-teller-rip were enough] to justify bitter feelings against him. Many [http://whyfiles.org/186ed_teller/4.html never forgave] him.</ref>}}
Although he made no accusations, his testimony regarding Oppenheimer made Teller [http://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/september24/tellerobit-924.html a pariah]. The left accused him of smearing an innocent man and [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tel0bio-1 blamed him] for ending Oppenheimer's career. The hearing transcript contradicts that conclusion, but to some, Teller’s anticommunist views alone [http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/edward-teller-rip were enough] to justify bitter feelings against him. Many [http://whyfiles.org/186ed_teller/4.html never forgave] him.
Although he made no accusations, his testimony regarding Oppenheimer made Teller [http://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/september24/tellerobit-924.html a pariah]. The left accused him of smearing an innocent man and [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tel0bio-1 blamed him] for ending Oppenheimer's career. The hearing transcript contradicts that conclusion, but to some, Teller's anticommunist views alone [http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/edward-teller-rip were enough] to justify bitter feelings against him. Many [http://whyfiles.org/186ed_teller/4.html never forgave] him.
==HUAC hearing==
==HUAC hearing==