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Bogomil: Bogomilism

Bogomil: Bogomilism

'''Bogomil''' designates a member of the Bogomil Church, a [[Christianity|Christian]] neo-Gnostic or [[Dualism|dualist]] [[sect]] teaching a doctrine called Bogomilism (Bulgarian and Macedonian: Богомилство, romanized: Bogomilstvo; Serbo-Croatian: Bogumilstvo / Богумилство); also anyone in general who follows the doctrine of Bogomilism, the Bogomils. The Bogomil sect was founded in the [[Bulgaria|First Bulgarian Empire]] by the priest Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Peter I in the 10th century that flourished in the [[Balkans]] between the 10th and 15th centuries. Bogomilism most probably arose in what is today the region of [[Macedonia]] as a response to the social stratification that occurred with the introduction of [[feudalism]] and as a form of [[political]] movement and opposition to the Bulgarian state and the doctrines and authority of the [[orthodox]] [[catholic]] Christian church as defined by the [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]] and the [[Ecumenical council|Seven Ecumenical Councils]].  

'''Bogomil''' designates a member of the Bogomil Church, a [[Christianity|Christian]] neo-Gnostic or [[Dualism|dualist]] [[sect]] teaching a doctrine called Bogomilism (Bulgarian and Macedonian: Богомилство, romanized: Bogomilstvo; Serbo-Croatian: Bogumilstvo / Богумилство); also anyone in general who follows the doctrine of Bogomilism, identified as Bogomils. The Bogomil sect was founded in the [[Bulgaria|First Bulgarian Empire]] by a priest named Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Peter I in the 10th century that flourished in the [[Balkans]] between the 10th and 15th centuries. Bogomilism most probably arose in what is today the region of [[Macedonia]] as a response to the social stratification that occurred with the introduction of [[feudalism]] and as a form of [[political]] movement and opposition to the Bulgarian state and the doctrines and authority of the [[orthodox]] [[catholic]] Christian church east and west as defined by the [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]] and the [[Ecumenical council|Seven Ecumenical Councils]].  

The origin of the Bogomils is not clear. Information about them comes almost entirely from their opponents. The extant sources discussing the sect say variously that they derived their doctrines from the Messalians, the Paulicians, or the Manichaeans.<ref>Sources for this article are listed in the External links, below. The linked sources listed there cite references to verifiable scholarly research for their assertions. The reader is referred to these sources for immediately accessible verification, in the stead of a posting of a multitude of detailed citations throughout this article. <br> Reading of each of the linked sources listed here is strongly recommended, coupled with independent consulting of the referent sources of research cited by these sources as personal verification of their authenticity and accuracy.</ref>

The origin of the Bogomils is not clear. Information about them comes almost entirely from their opponents. The extant sources discussing the sect say variously that they derived their doctrines from the Messalians, the Paulicians, or the Manichaeans.<ref>Sources for this article are listed in the External links, below. The linked sources listed there cite references to verifiable scholarly research for their assertions. The reader is referred to these sources for immediately accessible verification, in the stead of a posting of a multitude of detailed citations throughout this article. <br> Reading of each of the linked sources listed here is strongly recommended, coupled with independent consulting of the referent sources of research cited by these sources as personal verification of their authenticity and accuracy.</ref>  

 

Name

Name

Etymology

Etymology

The term Bogomil in free translation means "dear to God", and is a compound of the Slavic words for "god" (Common Slavic: *bogъ) and "dear" (Common Slavic: *milъ). It may be also a translation of the Greek name Theophilos, literally "dear to God; loved by the gods," from theos "god" + philos "loved, beloved". The Bogomils were so-called supposedly after the name of their founder, the priest Bogomil. But it is difficult to ascertain whether the name was taken from the reputed founder of that movement, a priest known by the name Bogomil (Bulgarian: Богомил, romanized: Bogomil), or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the sect itself.  

The term Bogomil in free translation means "dear to God", and is a compound of the Slavic words for "god" (Common Slavic: *bogъ) and "dear" (Common Slavic: *milъ). It may be also a translation of the Greek name Theophilos, literally "dear to God; loved by the gods," from theos "god" + philos "loved, beloved". The Bogomils were so-called supposedly after the name of their founder, the priest Bogomil. But it is difficult to ascertain whether the name was taken from the reputed founder of that movement, a priest known by the name Bogomil (Bulgarian: Богомил, romanized: Bogomil), or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the sect itself. The word itself is an Old Church Slavonic ''calque'' of Massaliani, the Syriac name of the sect corresponding to the Greek Euchites.  

In Church Slavonic documents the members are referred to as Babuni, which originally meant "superstition; superstitious person" (Common Slavic: *babonъ, *babunъ *babona). Toponyms<ref>A Toponym is a place name, especially one derived from a topographical feature.</ref> which retain the name include the river Babuna, the mountain Babuna, the Bogomila Waterfall and village Bogomila, all in the region of Azot today in central North [[Macedonia]], suggesting that the movement was very active in the region.

In Church Slavonic documents the members are referred to as Babuni, which originally meant "superstition; superstitious person" (Common Slavic: *babonъ, *babunъ *babona). Toponyms<ref>A Toponym is a place name, especially one derived from a topographical feature.</ref> which retain the name include the river Babuna, the mountain Babuna, the Bogomila Waterfall and village Bogomila, all in the region of Azot today in central North [[Macedonia]], suggesting that the movement was very active in the region.

300 - 4th century

300 - 4th century

Up to 1930, our knowledge of Manichaeanism was based mainly on information from its opponents, such as the great Apostolic Father, [[Saint Augustine]] (354-430), who, according to his ''Confession'' had been a fervent Manichee before his conversion to orthodox catholic Christianity under the influence of the preaching of [[Saint Ambrose]].  

Up to 1930, our knowledge of Manichaeanism was based mainly on information from its opponents, such as the great Apostolic Father, [[Saint Augustine]] (354-430), who, according to his ''Confession'' had been a fervent Manichee before his conversion to orthodox catholic Christianity under the influence of the preaching of [[Saint Ambrose]].  

Manichaeism teaches a ''cosmic dualism'': that the good and evil powers are equally present through all the eons of creation, including the physical creation. Moreover the world (heaven and earth) was created by a being from the kingdom of light, the living spirit. In each [[eon]], light and darkness struggle with one another to extract and purify the light. On earth it is the Manichaean priests (the ''electi'' "Elect"), who have the task of distilling light by consuming ritual meals. The light in plants and flowers is distilled by digestion. This form of cosmic dualism can be called ‘horizontal dualism’ <ref>van Schaik</ref>.

Manichaeism teaches a ''cosmic dualism'': that the good and evil powers are equally present through all the eons of creation, including the physical creation. Moreover the world (heaven and earth) was created by a being from the kingdom of light, the living spirit. In each [[eon]], light and darkness struggle with one another to extract and purify the light. On earth it is the Manichaean priests (the ''electi'' "Elect"), who have the task of distilling light by consuming ritual meals. The light in plants and flowers is distilled by digestion. This form of cosmic dualism can be called ‘horizontal dualism’ <ref>van Schaik</ref>.

From the Manichaean texts it appears that the good God has foreseen the entire development of the world. He permits wickedness, so that at the end of time the light may shine out with a ‘higher’ quality in a New Jerusalem. This is an ''[[Eschatology|eschatological]] dualism''. There is an evolutionary perspective: everything will be better.

From the Manichaean texts it appears that the good God has foreseen the entire development of the world. He permits wickedness, so that at the end of time the light may shine out with a ‘higher’ quality in a New Jerusalem. This is an ''[[Eschatology|eschatological]] dualism''. There is an evolutionary perspective in Manichaeanism: everything will be better.

400 - 5th century

400 - 5th century

500 - 6th century

500 - 6th century

600 - 7th century

600 - 7th century

The Paulicians were Gnostic dualist Christian heretics who arose in the Byzantine Empire between about 600 and 1000 who claimed to have preserved the true doctrine of the apostles of the Lord against the corruptions of [[pagan]]ism.  

 

Paulicianism arose in the Byzantine Empire and began in the mid-7th century between about A.D. 600 and 1000, when Constantine of Mananalis, who claimed to have preserved the true doctrine of the apostles of the Lord against the corruptions of [[pagan]]ism, and basing his message solely on the New Testament (''[[sola scriptura]]''), began to teach that there were two gods: a good god who had made men's souls, and an evil god who had created the entire physical universe including the human body. No one could dissuade him, because he claimed he had the scriptures as proof that he was right, in particular the apostle Paul. His followers, who like their founder were Gnostic dualist Christian heretics, became known as Paulicians, who were not marked by extreme deviance in lifestyle compared to their contemporaries, despite their belief that the world was evil, and were renowned as good fighting men.

700 - 8th century

700 - 8th century

Manichaeism became the state religion of the Uighur kingdom of Turkestan in Central Asia in the year 762

Manichaeism became the state religion of the Uighur kingdom of Turkestan in Central Asia in the year 762.

800 - 9th century

The Gnostic social-religious movement and doctrine of Bogomilism originated in the time of Peter I of Bulgaria (927–969), alleged in the modern day to be a reaction against state and clerical oppression by the Byzantine church. It was an outcome of many factors that had arisen in the beginning of the 10th century, most probably in the region of Macedonia.

900 - 10th century  

Much of Bogomil literature has been lost or was destroyed by the contemporary Christian Churches. The main source of doctrinal information is the work of Euthymius Zigabenus, who says that they believe that God created man's soul but matter was the invention of Satan, God's older son, who in seducing Eve lost his creative power. Concerning the Bogomils, something can be gathered from the polemic ''Against the Newly-Appeared Heresy of the Bogomils'' written in Slavonic by Cosmas the Priest, a 10th-century Bulgarian official.

 

1000 - 11th century

1000 - 11th century

The state religion of the Uighur kingdom of Turkestan in Central Asia remained Manichaeism and this territory itself became part of the [[Islamic world when Turkestan was conquered. Around the year 1000, Islamic writers such as Ebn al-Nadim were writing about Manichaeism <ref>See Ebn al-Nadim, al-FEHREST iii. The Representation of Manicheism in the Fehrest.</ref>.  

The state religion of the Uighur kingdom of Turkestan in Central Asia remained Manichaeism and this territory itself became part of the [[Islamic world when Turkestan was conquered. Around the year 1000, Islamic writers such as Ebn al-Nadim were writing about Manichaeism <ref>See Ebn al-Nadim, al-FEHREST iii. The Representation of Manicheism in the Fehrest.</ref>.  

The Bogomils first appeared in the tenth-eleventh century in the Balkans between about 1000 and 1400. They arose as Christian heretics who promulgated a neo-Gnostic [[Anarchism|anarchic]] dualist doctrine in Bulgaria, and spread throughout the Byzantine Empire.

The Bogomils first appeared in the tenth-eleventh century in the Balkans between about 1000 and 1400. They arose as Christian heretics who promulgated a neo-Gnostic [[Anarchism|anarchic]] dualist doctrine in Bulgaria, and spread throughout the Byzantine Empire. Much may also be learned from the doctrines of the numerous ''variations'' of Bogomilism which spread in Medieval Kievan Rus' after the 11th century.  

In both scholarly and popular accounts, the commonly held view has often been repeated that late classical [[Manichaeism]] experienced a revival in the eleventh century, a notion going back to the [[Middle Ages]] when ‘Manichaean’ was used by the orthodox catholic Christian Church as a generic label for heretics from about the year 1000 onwards, and that in the three and half centuries between 1000 and 1350 variant forms of the doctrines of ‘Manichaeism’ had spread in Europe, where followers of those doctrines were commonly known as [[Cathar]]s, even if they did not properly belong explicitly to that particular sect.  

In both scholarly and popular accounts, the commonly held view has often been repeated that late classical [[Manichaeism]] experienced a revival in the eleventh century, a notion going back to the [[Middle Ages]] when ‘Manichaean’ was used by the orthodox catholic Christian Church as a generic label for heretics from about the year 1000 onwards, and that in the three and half centuries between 1000 and 1350 variant forms of the doctrines of ‘Manichaeism’ had spread in Europe, where followers of those doctrines were commonly known as [[Cathar]]s, even if they did not properly belong explicitly to that particular sect.  

Their criticism of the church attracted the accusation of being ‘Manichaeans,’ an epithet derived from the writings of Augustine. The existence of Manichaeans in Europe was first reported in 1020. Many similar reports were to follow.  

Their criticism of the church attracted the accusation of being ‘Manichaeans,’ an epithet derived from the writings of Augustine. The existence of Manichaeans in Europe was first reported in 1020. Many similar reports were to follow.  

1100 - 12th century

1100 - 12th century

The supposed influence of Manichaeism on the Cathars has been increasingly questioned, particularly as regards ''radical'' Catharism, because it was especially this variant of Catharism that was said to teach the same dualism as did the Manichaeans <ref>Söderberg; Dies.</ref>.  

The supposed influence of Manichaeism on the Cathars has been increasingly questioned, particularly as regards ''radical'' Catharism, because it was especially this variant of Catharism that was said to teach the same dualism as did the Manichaeans <ref>Söderberg; Dies.</ref>.  

The Cathars, like the Bogomils, claimed to be Christians. They differed from Catholic Christianity in teaching dualism and Docetism, both of which had been [[dogma]]tically condemned as [[Heresy|heretical]]. Because the Cathars taught that the creation and the body were created by the wicked [[demiurge]] or [[Satan]], they could not imagine that Christ could have been incarnated in the flesh. According to the ''Interrogatio Iohanni'', he entered Mary through her ear and left her again in the same way <ref>Bozóky</ref>.  

The Cathars, like the Bogomils, claimed to be Christians. The Bogomils called for a return to what they considered to be early spiritual teaching, rejecting the authority of ecclesiastical [[hierarchy]], and their primary political tendencies were resistance to the leadership of state and church authorities. This helped the movement spread quickly in the Balkans, gradually expanding throughout the [[Byzantine Empire]] and later reaching Kievan Rus' (Ukraine), Bosnia (Bosnian Church), Dalmatia, Serbia, Italy, and France (Cathars).

 

They differed from Catholic Christianity in teaching dualism and [[Docetism]], both of which had been [[dogma]]tically condemned as [[Heresy|heretical]]. The Bogomils were dualists or Gnostics in that they believed in a world within the body and a world outside the body, dual existences. They did not use the Christian cross, nor build churches, as they revered their gifted physical form and considered their body to be the temple. This gave rise to many forms of practice to cleanse oneself through "purging"<ref>The forms of purging adopted specifically by the Bogomils are not clear. Some ascetical sects in history have used self-flagellation, or beating themselves with knotted whips or cords or thorns, or wearing "hairshirts" (which constantly pricked and itched) next to the skin and genitals, holding a stone in the mouth for hours and days at a time, placing small coarse pebbles in their shoes, to voluntarily go speechless and mute, saying nothing, asking for nothing, never protesting or praising for any reason, all in order to "beat down" and "punish" the passions of the body, i.e. sexual desires, anger, resentment, longing for wine and good food, desire to acquire possessions, to have property, to gain reputation, to exercise authority over others, to marry and have children.</ref>, fasting, celebrating and dancing.

 

Because the Cathars taught that the creation and the body were created by the wicked [[demiurge]] or [[Satan]], they could not imagine that Christ could have been incarnated in the flesh. According to the ''Interrogatio Iohanni'', he entered Mary through her ear and left her again in the same way <ref>Bozóky</ref>.  

According to Sacconi, the radical Cathar Giovanni di Lugio taught that Christ actually suffered, died and rose again, not in the physical world, but in a higher world <ref>Sanjek; Borst.</ref>. This idea cannot be found so clearly in the ''Liber de duobus principiis'', which claims that Christ was crucified by the bad God and creator, meaning the old Testament Iahweh <ref>Liber IV, p. 53, ed. Thouzellier.</ref>. The good God had nothing to do with this. Therefore the crucifixion does not represent salvation for men, but does show that the ''veri christiani'' "true Christians" (the Cathars) will have to suffer in his footsteps <ref>ibid., Liber VII, p. 66, ed. Thouzellier.</ref>. The true salvation is achieved through ''gnosis''. For the Cathars, Christ is the wise teacher who teaches us that our true origin is from the spirit <ref>Borst; Müller.</ref>.

According to Sacconi, the radical Cathar ''Giovanni di Lugio'' taught that Christ actually suffered, died and rose again, not in the physical world, but in a higher world <ref>Sanjek; Borst.</ref>. This idea cannot be found so clearly in the ''Liber de duobus principiis'', which claims that Christ was crucified by the bad God and creator, meaning the old Testament Iahweh <ref>Liber IV, p. 53, ed. Thouzellier.</ref>. The good God had nothing to do with this. Therefore the crucifixion does not represent salvation for men, but does show that the ''veri christiani'' "true Christians" (the Cathars) will have to suffer in his footsteps <ref>ibid., Liber VII, p. 66, ed. Thouzellier.</ref>. The true salvation is achieved through ''gnosis''. For the Cathars, Christ is the wise teacher who teaches us that our true origin is from the spirit <ref>Borst; Müller.</ref>.

At the Council of Reims in 1157, measures were taken against the “impure sect of the Manichaeans” <ref>Mansi, 1903</ref>. The first report from a layman about the Cathars dates from 1177. This report is not based on information from Augustine. In a letter to a Cistercian abbot, Count [[Raymond of Toulouse]] in Southern France asks how he should proceed against the heretics who “teach two principles”, that is, two Gods <ref>Stubbs</ref>. The heretics were then interrogated, and the report of the interrogations speaks of heretics who preach “two gods” <ref>ibid., Stubbs.</ref>.

At the Council of Reims in 1157, measures were taken against the “impure sect of the Manichaeans” <ref>Mansi, 1903</ref>. The first report from a layman about the Cathars dates from 1177. This report is not based on information from Augustine. In a letter to a Cistercian abbot, Count [[Raymond of Toulouse]] in Southern France asks how he should proceed against the heretics who “teach two principles”, that is, two Gods <ref>Stubbs</ref>. The heretics were then interrogated, and the report of the interrogations speaks of heretics who preach “two gods” <ref>ibid., Stubbs.</ref>.

Within a few decades, Southern France in particular develops into a Cathar bulwark. The Cathars have the sympathy of the population and the local nobility, while the [[Roman Catholic Church]] has little influence on them.

Within a few decades, Southern France in particular develops into a Cathar bulwark. The Cathars have the sympathy of the population and the local nobility, while the [[Roman Catholic Church]] has little influence on them.

The church’s response comes in three increasingly harsh phases:<br>

 

The church’s response to ‘Manichaean Catharism’ comes in three increasingly harsh phases:<br>

1. Attempts at conversion. <br>

1. Attempts at conversion. <br>

2. The [[inquisition]], established in 1184. <br>

2. The [[inquisition]], established in 1184. <br>

Finally the church turned to its ultimate weapon, launching a crusade against the Cathars in Southern France from 1204, the same year as the beginning of the [[Franciscan|Franciscans founded 1207-08]]. Pope Innocent III officially in 1208 announced the ‘''Crusade against the Albigensians''’ (the synonym for Cathars). Thus there was a domestic crusade in Europe, between the fourth and fifth crusades against the [[Saracen]]s.  

Finally the church turned to its ultimate weapon, launching a crusade against the Cathars in Southern France from 1204, the same year as the beginning of the [[Franciscan|Franciscans founded 1207-08]]. Pope Innocent III officially in 1208 announced the ‘''Crusade against the Albigensians''’ (the synonym for Cathars). Thus there was a domestic crusade in Europe, between the fourth and fifth crusades against the [[Saracen]]s.  

The Cathars were often persecuted in horrifying ways by veteran Crusader princes and knights in defense of the Church against the poison of Catharism. The situation reached its nadir with the conquest of the fortress of Montségur in 1244, when 205 Cathar priests (''parfaits'' or ''perfecti'') died at the stake. The Cathars retreated into the [[Pyrenees]].  

The Cathars were often persecuted in horrifying ways by returned veteran Crusader princes and knights in defense of the Church against the poison of Catharism. The situation reached its nadir with the conquest of the fortress of Montségur in 1244, when 205 Cathar priests (''parfaits'' or ''perfecti'') died at the stake. The Cathars retreated into the [[Pyrenees]]. The Bogomils are identified with the Messalians in Slavonic documents from the 13th century.

The possibility that Manichean ideas reached the Bogomils in the Balkans through the Islamic expansion has been dismissed by some scholars. According to the ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (de Blois, p. 510a) this is highly improbable as conversions to Islam only started in the Balkans about 1260, and the main Ottoman colonization was between 1300-1400.

The possibility that Manichean ideas reached the Bogomils in the Balkans through the Islamic expansion has been dismissed by some scholars. According to the ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (de Blois, p. 510a) this is highly improbable as conversions to Islam only started in the Balkans about 1260, and the main Ottoman colonization was between 1300-1400.

1300 - 14th century

1300 - 14th century

The last Cathars, a group in the caves of Lombrive, were not eliminated until 1330, when the only access to the caves was bricked over.

The last Cathars, a group in the caves of Lombrive, were not eliminated until 1330, when the only access to the caves was bricked over.

1400 - 15th century

1400 - 15th century

The Bogomils were still being persecuted in Bosnia in 1462. A year later, Bosnia was conquered by the [[Ottoman]]s, and the Bogomils apparently adopted [[Islam]], as they did elsewhere following Islamic conquests <ref>Bozoky</ref>.

The Bogomils were still being persecuted in Bosnia in 1462. A year later, Bosnia was conquered by the [[Ottoman]]s, and the Bogomils apparently adopted [[Islam]], as they did elsewhere following Islamic conquests <ref>Bozoky</ref>.

1500 - 16th century

1500 - 16th century

1600 - 17th century

1600 - 17th century

1700 - 18th century

1700 - 18th century

[[Demiurge]]

[[Demiurge]]

[[Mandaeans]]

[[Mandaeans]]

[[Marcion]]

[[Marcion of Sinope]]

[[Arianism]]

[[Arianism]]

[[Council of Nicea]]

[[Council of Nicea]]

[[Docetism]]

[[Great Apostasy]]

 

[[Montanism]]

[[Anarchism]]

[[Anarchism]]

[https://www.britannica.com/event/New-Thought New Thought | American Religious Movement - Britannica (britannica.com)]

[https://www.britannica.com/event/New-Thought New Thought | American Religious Movement - Britannica (britannica.com)]

The Slavonic sources are unanimous on the point that Bogomil's teaching was Manichaean. A Synodikon from the year 1210 adds the names of his pupils or "apostles", Mihail, Todur, Dobri, Stefan, Vasilie and Peter. Zealous missionaries carried their doctrines far and wide. In 1004, scarcely 25 years after the introduction of Christianity into Kievan Rus, we hear of a priest Adrian teaching the same doctrines as the Bogomils. He was imprisoned by Leontius, Bishop of Kiev. In 1125, the Church in the south of Rus had to combat another heresiarch named Dmitri. The Church in Bulgaria also tried to extirpate Bogomilism. Several thousand went in the army of Alexios I Komnenos against the Norman, Robert Guiscard; but, deserting the emperor, many of them (1085) were thrown into prison.[citation needed] Efforts were again put forth for their conversion; and for the converts the new city of Alexiopolis was built, opposite Philippopolis. When the Crusaders took Constantinople (1204), they found some Paulicians, whom the historian Geoffrey of Villehardouin calls Popelicans.[citation needed]  

The Slavonic sources are unanimous on the point that Bogomil's teaching was Manichaean. A Synodikon from the year 1210 adds the names of his pupils or "apostles", Mihail, Todur, Dobri, Stefan, Vasilie and Peter. Zealous missionaries carried their doctrines far and wide. In 1004, scarcely 25 years after the introduction of Christianity into Kievan Rus, we hear of a priest Adrian teaching the same doctrines as the Bogomils. He was imprisoned by Leontius, Bishop of Kiev. In 1125, the Church in the south of Rus had to combat another heresiarch named Dmitri. The Church in Bulgaria also tried to extirpate Bogomilism. Several thousand went in the army of Alexios I Komnenos against the Norman, Robert Guiscard; but, deserting the emperor, many of them (1085) were thrown into prison.[citation needed] Efforts were again put forth for their conversion; and for the converts the new city of Alexiopolis was built, opposite Philippopolis. When the Crusaders took Constantinople (1204), they found some Paulicians, whom the historian Geoffrey of Villehardouin calls Popelicans.[citation needed]  

The Legend of Saint Gerard discloses that followers of Bulgarian Bogomilism were present during the early 11th century in Ahtum's realm, which comprised present day Banat. They invoked Archangel Uriel, whose name is common in amulets and magic rituals.[citation needed]  

The Legend of Saint Gerard discloses that followers of Bulgarian Bogomilism were present during the early 11th century in Ahtum's realm, which comprised present day Banat. They invoked Archangel Uriel, whose name is common in amulets and magic rituals.[citation needed]