Changes

Henry never formally repudiated the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, but he declared himself supreme head of the church in England.  This, combined with subsequent actions, eventually resulted in a separated church, the [[Anglican Church|Church of England]].  The pope behaved more as an Italian prince involved in secular affairs, which often obscured his religious role. The Church treated England as a minor stepchild, allowing it one cardinal out of fifty, and no possibility of becoming pope. For reasons of state it was increasingly intolerable that major decisions in England were settled by Italians. The divorce issue exemplified the problem but was not itself the cause of the problem.  As long as Cardinal Wolsey dominated the government the widespread sentiment for reform could go nowhere.<ref>A. F. Pollard, ''Henry VIII'' (1905) provides the classic statement of the Henrician position, esp. pp 230-38, noting that Spain and France stayed loyal because they controlled the papacy.</ref>  

Henry never formally repudiated the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, but he declared himself supreme head of the church in England.  This, combined with subsequent actions, eventually resulted in a separated church, the [[Anglican Church|Church of England]].  The pope behaved more as an Italian prince involved in secular affairs, which often obscured his religious role. The Church treated England as a minor stepchild, allowing it one cardinal out of fifty, and no possibility of becoming pope. For reasons of state it was increasingly intolerable that major decisions in England were settled by Italians. The divorce issue exemplified the problem but was not itself the cause of the problem.  As long as Cardinal Wolsey dominated the government the widespread sentiment for reform could go nowhere.<ref>A. F. Pollard, ''Henry VIII'' (1905) provides the classic statement of the Henrician position, esp. pp 230-38, noting that Spain and France stayed loyal because they controlled the papacy.</ref>  

Henry's reformation of the English church involved more complex motives and methods than his desire for a new wife and an heir. Henry asserted that his first marriage had never been valid, but the divorce issue was only one factor in Henry's desire to reform the church. In 1536-37, he instituted a number of statutes-the act of appeal, the act of succession, the act of supremacy and others-that dealt with the relationship between the king and the pope and the structure of the Church of England. During these years, Henry also suppressed monasteries and pilgrimage shrines in his attempt to reform the church.  The kins was always the dominant force in the making of religious policy; his policy, which he pursued skilfully and consistently, is best characterized as a search for the middle way.<ref>G. W. Bernard, ''The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church'' (2005)</ref>  

Henry's reformation of the English church involved more complex motives and methods than his desire for a new wife and an heir. Henry asserted that his first marriage had never been valid, but the divorce issue was only one factor in Henry's desire to reform the church. In 1536–37, he instituted a number of statutes-the act of appeal, the act of succession, the act of supremacy and others-that dealt with the relationship between the king and the pope and the structure of the Church of England. During these years, Henry also suppressed monasteries and pilgrimage shrines in his attempt to reform the church.  The kins was always the dominant force in the making of religious policy; his policy, which he pursued skilfully and consistently, is best characterized as a search for the middle way.<ref>G. W. Bernard, ''The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church'' (2005)</ref>  

Questions over what was the true faith were resolved with the adoption of the orthodox "Act of Six Articles" (1539) and a careful holding of the balance between extreme factions after 1540. Even so, the era saw movement away from religious orthodoxy, the more so as the pillars of the old beliefs, especially Thomas More and John Fisher, had been unable to accept the change and had been executed in 1535 for siding with the pope against the king.

Questions over what was the true faith were resolved with the adoption of the orthodox "Act of Six Articles" (1539) and a careful holding of the balance between extreme factions after 1540. Even so, the era saw movement away from religious orthodoxy, the more so as the pillars of the old beliefs, especially Thomas More and John Fisher, had been unable to accept the change and had been executed in 1535 for siding with the pope against the king.

Henry made radical changes in traditional religious practices. He ordered the clergy to preach against superstitious images, relics, miracles, and pilgrimages, and to remove most candles.  The catechism of 1545, called the ''King's Primer,'' left out the saints.  Latin rituals gave way to English. Shrines to saints were destroyed—including the popular one of St Thomas at Canterbury; relics were ridiculed as worthless old bones.  

Henry made radical changes in traditional religious practices. He ordered the clergy to preach against superstitious images, relics, miracles, and pilgrimages, and to remove most candles.  The catechism of 1545, called the ''King's Primer,'' left out the saints.  Latin rituals gave way to English. Shrines to saints were destroyed—including the popular one of St Thomas at Canterbury; relics were ridiculed as worthless old bones.  

The reforms alienated [[Piety|pious]] folk who believed in the old rituals depended on the monasteries for religious devotions and helped provoke the great northern rising of 1536-1537, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace. It was the only real threat to Henry's security on the throne in all his reign.  Some 30,000 rebels in nine groups were led by the charismatic Robert Aske, together with most of the northern nobility. Aske went to London to negotiate terms; once there he was arrested, charged with treason and executed. About 200 rebels were executed and the disturbances ended.<ref>M. L. Bush, "The Tudor Polity and the Pilgrimage of Grace." ''Historical Research'' 2007 80(207): 47-72. Issn: 0950-3471 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; Geoffrey Moorhouse, ''The Pilgrimage of Grace: The Rebellion That Shook Henry VIII's Throne'' (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/Pilgrimage-Grace-Rebellion-Shook-Throne/dp/1842126660/ref=pd_ts_b_33?ie=UTF8&s=books excerpt and text search]</ref> Elsewhere the changes were accepted and welcomed, as those who clung to Catholic rites kept quiet or moved in secrecy; they would reemerge in the reign (1553–58) of Henry's daughter Mary.

The reforms alienated [[Piety|pious]] folk who believed in the old rituals depended on the monasteries for religious devotions and helped provoke the great northern rising of 1536–1537, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace. It was the only real threat to Henry's security on the throne in all his reign.  Some 30,000 rebels in nine groups were led by the charismatic Robert Aske, together with most of the northern nobility. Aske went to London to negotiate terms; once there he was arrested, charged with treason and executed. About 200 rebels were executed and the disturbances ended.<ref>M. L. Bush, "The Tudor Polity and the Pilgrimage of Grace." ''Historical Research'' 2007 80(207): 47-72. Issn: 0950-3471 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; Geoffrey Moorhouse, ''The Pilgrimage of Grace: The Rebellion That Shook Henry VIII's Throne'' (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/Pilgrimage-Grace-Rebellion-Shook-Throne/dp/1842126660/ref=pd_ts_b_33?ie=UTF8&s=books excerpt and text search]</ref> Elsewhere the changes were accepted and welcomed, as those who clung to Catholic rites kept quiet or moved in secrecy; they would reemerge in the reign (1553–58) of Henry's daughter Mary.

==Public image and memory==

==Public image and memory==

===Biographical===

===Biographical===

* Erickson, Carolly.  ''Mistress Anne: The Exceptional Life of Anne Boleyn.'' (1984) 464 pp.  popular biography

* Erickson, Carolly.  ''Mistress Anne: The Exceptional Life of Anne Boleyn.'' (1984) 464 pp.  popular biography

* Cressy, David. "Spectacle and Power: Apollo and Solomon at the Court of Henry VIII." ''History Today'' 1982 32(oct): 16-22. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] Traces the transition of Henry from Renaissance monarch (the youthful Apollo) to Reformation patriarch (the aging Solomon) using the graphics and visual images displayed in his court, festivals, and kingdom.

* Cressy, David. "Spectacle and Power: Apollo and Solomon at the Court of Henry VIII." ''History Today'' 1982 32(oct): 16–22. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] Traces the transition of Henry from Renaissance monarch (the youthful Apollo) to Reformation patriarch (the aging Solomon) using the graphics and visual images displayed in his court, festivals, and kingdom.

* Gardner, James. "Henry VIII" in ''Cambridge Modern History'' vol 2 (1903), a brief political history  [http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh213.html online edition]

* Gardner, James. "Henry VIII" in ''Cambridge Modern History'' vol 2 (1903), a brief political history  [http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh213.html online edition]

* Graves, Michael. ''Henry VIII'' (2003) 217pp, topical coverage  

* Graves, Michael. ''Henry VIII'' (2003) 217pp, topical coverage  

===Scholarly studies===

===Scholarly studies===

* Bernard, G. W.  ''The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church.'' (2005). 712 pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=p2MOt53sCCgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:King%27s+intitle:Reformation+inauthor:bernard&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&sig=WTvpwPbd8txXGzbj0RP3pA9Qut8 excerpts and text search]

* Bernard, G. W.  ''The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church.'' (2005). 712 pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=p2MOt53sCCgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:King%27s+intitle:Reformation+inauthor:bernard&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&sig=WTvpwPbd8txXGzbj0RP3pA9Qut8 excerpts and text search]

* Bernard, G. W. "The Making of Religious Policy, 1533-1546: Henry VIII and the Search for the Middle Way." ''Historical Journal'' 1998 41(2): 321-349. Issn: 0018-246x Fulltext: [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2640109  in Jstor]

* Bernard, G. W. "The Making of Religious Policy, 1533-1546: Henry VIII and the Search for the Middle Way." ''Historical Journal'' 1998 41(2): 321–349. Issn: 0018-246x Fulltext: [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2640109  in Jstor]

* Bernard, G. W.  ''War, Taxation, and Rebellion in Early Tudor England: Henry VIII, Wolsey, and the Amicable Grant of 1525.'' (1986). 164 pp  

* Bernard, G. W.  ''War, Taxation, and Rebellion in Early Tudor England: Henry VIII, Wolsey, and the Amicable Grant of 1525.'' (1986). 164 pp  

* Elton, G. R. ''The Tudor Revolution in Government: Administrative Changes in the Reign of Henry VIII'' (1953; revised 1962), major interpretation [http://www.questia.com/read/2993196?title=The%20Tudor%20Revolution%20in%20Government%3a%20Administrative%20Changes%20in%20the%20Reign%20of%20Henry%20VIII online edition]  

* Elton, G. R. ''The Tudor Revolution in Government: Administrative Changes in the Reign of Henry VIII'' (1953; revised 1962), major interpretation [http://www.questia.com/read/2993196?title=The%20Tudor%20Revolution%20in%20Government%3a%20Administrative%20Changes%20in%20the%20Reign%20of%20Henry%20VIII online edition]  

* Head, David M. "'If a Lion Knew His Own Strength': the Image of Henry VIII and His Historians." ''International Social Science Review'' 1997 72(3-4): 94-109. Issn: 0278-2308 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* Head, David M. "'If a Lion Knew His Own Strength': the Image of Henry VIII and His Historians." ''International Social Science Review'' 1997 72(3-4): 94-109. Issn: 0278-2308 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* Hoak, Dale. "Politics, Religion and the English Reformation, 1533-1547: Some Problems and Issues." ''History Compass'' 2005 3 (Britain and Ireland): 7 pp Issn: 1478-0542 Fulltext: [[Blackwell Synergy]]

* Hoak, Dale. "Politics, Religion and the English Reformation, 1533-1547: Some Problems and Issues." ''History Compass'' 2005 3 (Britain and Ireland): 7 pp Issn: 1478-0542 Fulltext: [[Blackwell Synergy]]

* Ives, Eric. "Will the Real Henry VIII Please Stand Up?" ''History Today'' 2006 56(2): 28-36. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* Ives, Eric. "Will the Real Henry VIII Please Stand Up?" ''History Today'' 2006 56(2): 28–36. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

===Primary sources===

===Primary sources===

*  Williams, C. M. A. H. ''English Historical Documents, 1485-1558'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/read/104189416?title=English%20Historical%20Documents%2c%201485-1558 online sources]

*  Williams, C. M. A. H. ''English Historical Documents, 1485-1558'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/read/104189416?title=English%20Historical%20Documents%2c%201485-1558 online sources]