Changes

In earlier research of the origins of Dutch society, a number of myths shaped the scholarly discourse as well as the national consciousness. Led by the great scholar [[Hugo Grotius]] (1583-1645) historians in the 17th and 18th centuries believed in the "Batavian myth" which posited the existence of an independent and free Batavian state and society in the Roman period. They interpreted the revolt of the Batavi in AD 70 as the earliest Dutch war of freedom against tyranny; the founders of the new Dutch "Batavian Republic" in 1795 saw themselves as recreating this heroic action. By 1890, scholars realized the myth was false, but Civilis, leader of the Batavians, remained in the national consciousness.<ref>E. O. G. Haitsma Mulier, "De Bataafse Mythe Opnieuw Bekeken" [The Batavian Myth Viewed Anew]. ''Bijdragen En Mededelingen Betreffende De Geschiedenis Der Nederlanden'' (1996) 111(3): 344-367.</ref>

In earlier research of the origins of Dutch society, a number of myths shaped the scholarly discourse as well as the national consciousness. Led by the great scholar [[Hugo Grotius]] (1583-1645) historians in the 17th and 18th centuries believed in the "Batavian myth" which posited the existence of an independent and free Batavian state and society in the Roman period. They interpreted the revolt of the Batavi in AD 70 as the earliest Dutch war of freedom against tyranny; the founders of the new Dutch "Batavian Republic" in 1795 saw themselves as recreating this heroic action. By 1890, scholars realized the myth was false, but Civilis, leader of the Batavians, remained in the national consciousness.<ref>E. O. G. Haitsma Mulier, "De Bataafse Mythe Opnieuw Bekeken" [The Batavian Myth Viewed Anew]. ''Bijdragen En Mededelingen Betreffende De Geschiedenis Der Nederlanden'' (1996) 111(3): 344-367.</ref>

In the 19th century, scholars influenced by Romanticism propounded the idea that the Franks, Frisians, and Saxons were not only the oldest ancestors of the Dutch people, but also that the modern descendants reflected the original values and strengths. The idea caught on and was taught in the schools, for this theory explained why the Belgians (Franks) were Catholic and the Frisians and Saxons were Protestant. The success of this theory of origins was partly due to theories in anthropology, which were based on a tribal paradigm. Being politically and geographically inclusive and leaving at the same time space for diversity, this historical vision filled the needs of Dutch nation-building and integration in the period 1890-1914. However, the disadvantages of this historical interpretation soon became apparent. It suggested there were no strong external borders, while allowing for the fairly clear-cut internal borders that were emerging as the society pillarized into three separate parts based on religion.  Especially during the Second World War, the origins myth proved to be no defense against the dangers of regional separatism and annexation to Germany. After 1945, the tribal paradigm lost its grip on anthropology; the "three-tribes-theme" was also fundamentally questioned and slowly faded away.<ref>Marnix Beyen, "A Tribal Trinity: the Rise and Fall of the Franks, the Frisians and the Saxons in the Historical Consciousness of the Netherlands since 1850." ''European History Quarterly'' 2000 30(4): 493-532. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: [[EBSCO]]</ref>

In the 19th century, scholars influenced by Romanticism propounded the idea that the Franks, Frisians, and Saxons were not only the oldest ancestors of the Dutch people, but also that the modern descendants reflected the original values and strengths. The idea caught on and was taught in the schools, for this theory explained why the Belgians (Franks) were Catholic and the Frisians and Saxons were Protestant. The success of this theory of origins was partly due to theories in anthropology, which were based on a tribal paradigm. Being politically and geographically inclusive and leaving at the same time space for diversity, this historical vision filled the needs of Dutch nation-building and integration in the period 1890–1914. However, the disadvantages of this historical interpretation soon became apparent. It suggested there were no strong external borders, while allowing for the fairly clear-cut internal borders that were emerging as the society pillarized into three separate parts based on religion.  Especially during the Second World War, the origins myth proved to be no defense against the dangers of regional separatism and annexation to Germany. After 1945, the tribal paradigm lost its grip on anthropology; the "three-tribes-theme" was also fundamentally questioned and slowly faded away.<ref>Marnix Beyen, "A Tribal Trinity: the Rise and Fall of the Franks, the Frisians and the Saxons in the Historical Consciousness of the Netherlands since 1850." ''European History Quarterly'' 2000 30(4): 493-532. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: [[EBSCO]]</ref>

===Roman Empire===

===Roman Empire===

The conversion of the Frisians by Irish and Anglo-Saxon missionaries took place in the early eighth century by the English Benedictine monks Willibrord (658-739) and [[Boniface]] (675–754). That Christianity did not immediately take hold is shown by the fact that Boniface was murdered in Friesland in AD 754 by pagan Frisians. From the 15th century onward, tales connected with the fall of the trees in the "Wild Woods without Mercy" of the Netherlands, which reportedly took place at the time of Saint Willibrord, in the 8th century, give the impression that the "barbarous" past of the northern Netherlands was swept away in one single moment with the fall of the area's trees. These stories associate Dutch civilization with the eradication of this vertical symbol and suggest that it is essentially secular, restrictive, claustrophilic, and egalitarian.<ref>István Bejczy, "Willibrord and the 'Tree Fall': a Historiographical Myth of the Origins of Dutch Civilization." ''Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies'' 1995 16(1): 1-5. Issn: 0225-0500</ref>

The conversion of the Frisians by Irish and Anglo-Saxon missionaries took place in the early eighth century by the English Benedictine monks Willibrord (658-739) and [[Boniface]] (675–754). That Christianity did not immediately take hold is shown by the fact that Boniface was murdered in Friesland in AD 754 by pagan Frisians. From the 15th century onward, tales connected with the fall of the trees in the "Wild Woods without Mercy" of the Netherlands, which reportedly took place at the time of Saint Willibrord, in the 8th century, give the impression that the "barbarous" past of the northern Netherlands was swept away in one single moment with the fall of the area's trees. These stories associate Dutch civilization with the eradication of this vertical symbol and suggest that it is essentially secular, restrictive, claustrophilic, and egalitarian.<ref>István Bejczy, "Willibrord and the 'Tree Fall': a Historiographical Myth of the Origins of Dutch Civilization." ''Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies'' 1995 16(1): 1-5. Issn: 0225-0500</ref>

    

    

The important trading post of Dorestad became a large center of power in the Frankish-dominated lands and throughout Northwestern Europe. After several decades of battles between Franks and neighboring Frisians over control of the town, the Frankish nobleman [[Charles Martel]] (688-741) decisively won the town for the Franks in AD 734. As a result, the Frankish kingdom was extended north across the former Roman-Frisian frontier up to the northern North Sea coast. Charles’ son Pippin III (714–768), also known as Pippin the Short, ousted the Merovingian king  and proclaimed himself King of the Franks. He passed on a solidified kingdom. His son [[Charlemagne]] ("Charles the Great") (742–814) fought against the Saxons to the north and east of the Frankish lands and conquered them in AD 785. Both Pippin and Charlemagne sought approval of their kingship from the Roman Church; Charlemagne went to Rome in AD 800 to be crowned by the pope; his coronation legitimized Charlemagne’s rule over the former Roman empire in Western Europe and finalized the split between the Byzantine empire and the west.  

The important trading post of Dorestad became a large center of power in the Frankish-dominated lands and throughout Northwestern Europe. After several decades of battles between Franks and neighboring Frisians over control of the town, the Frankish nobleman [[Charles Martel]] (688-741) decisively won the town for the Franks in AD 734. As a result, the Frankish kingdom was extended north across the former Roman-Frisian frontier up to the northern North Sea coast. Charles’ son Pippin III (714–768), also known as Pippin the Short, ousted the Merovingian king  and proclaimed himself King of the Franks. He passed on a solidified kingdom. His son [[Charlemagne]] ("Charles the Great") (742–814) fought against the Saxons to the north and east of the Frankish lands and conquered them in AD 785. Both Pippin and Charlemagne sought approval of their kingship from the Roman Church; Charlemagne went to Rome in AD 800 to be crowned by the pope; his coronation legitimized Charlemagne's rule over the former Roman empire in Western Europe and finalized the split between the Byzantine empire and the west.  

Charlemagne’s great accomplishment was the organization and reorganization of his empire. He instituted the [[feudal system]], based on land grants or "fiefs" given to local officials and noblemen who supported the king and in turn owed him military service. In effect, this created the conditions for the rise and establishment of local rulers.

Charlemagne's great accomplishment was the organization and reorganization of his empire. He instituted the [[feudal system]], based on land grants or "fiefs" given to local officials and noblemen who supported the king and in turn owed him military service. In effect, this created the conditions for the rise and establishment of local rulers.

After Charlemagne’s death in 814, central power in the Frankish empire disintegrated rapidly, as it was divided into smaller kingdoms. At the same time, Viking raids on the now more vulnerable Low Countries increased and this created a period of chaos during which Danish chieftains even established small kingdoms in the Netherlands. However, by the end of the ninth century, Viking activity in the Netherlands decreased as a result of failing harvests,  increased Danish interests in England, as well as the fact that the ongoing conversion of Danes to Christianity caused many of them to give up raiding.

After Charlemagne's death in 814, central power in the Frankish empire disintegrated rapidly, as it was divided into smaller kingdoms. At the same time, Viking raids on the now more vulnerable Low Countries increased and this created a period of chaos during which Danish chieftains even established small kingdoms in the Netherlands. However, by the end of the ninth century, Viking activity in the Netherlands decreased as a result of failing harvests,  increased Danish interests in England, as well as the fact that the ongoing conversion of Danes to Christianity caused many of them to give up raiding.

In AD 925, King Henry I of Germany conquered the province of Lorraine, which included the Low Countries, essentially marking the end of Danish influence.  Over the next century, smaller counties were merged through conquest or intermarriage into larger regional principalities. By the end of the first millennium, the territories that cover the modern provinces of the Netherlands had reached roughly their current size and their rulers had achieved enough power to be only nominally subject to the German emperor.

In AD 925, King Henry I of Germany conquered the province of Lorraine, which included the Low Countries, essentially marking the end of Danish influence.  Over the next century, smaller counties were merged through conquest or intermarriage into larger regional principalities. By the end of the first millennium, the territories that cover the modern provinces of the Netherlands had reached roughly their current size and their rulers had achieved enough power to be only nominally subject to the German emperor.

====The Rise of Holland in the High Middle Ages====

====The Rise of Holland in the High Middle Ages====

The center of power in these emerging independent territories was in the County of Holland. Originally granted as a fief to the Danish chieftain Rorik in return for loyalty to the emperor in 862, the region of Kennemara (the region around modern [[Haarlem]]) rapidly grew under Rorik’s descendants in size and importance. By the early 11th century, Count Dirk III was levying tolls on the Meuse estuary and was able to resist military intervention from his overlord, the Duke of Lower Lorraine. In 1083, the name ‘’Holland’’ first appears in a deed referring to a region corresponding more or less to the current province of South Holland and the southern half of what is now North Holland. Holland’s influence continued to grow over the next two centuries. The Counts of Holland conquered most of [[Zeeland]] but it was not until 1289 that Count [[Floris V]] (1254–96) was able to subjugate the Frisians in West Friesland (that is, the northern half of North Holland).

The center of power in these emerging independent territories was in the County of Holland. Originally granted as a fief to the Danish chieftain Rorik in return for loyalty to the emperor in 862, the region of Kennemara (the region around modern [[Haarlem]]) rapidly grew under Rorik's descendants in size and importance. By the early 11th century, Count Dirk III was levying tolls on the Meuse estuary and was able to resist military intervention from his overlord, the Duke of Lower Lorraine. In 1083, the name ‘’Holland’’ first appears in a deed referring to a region corresponding more or less to the current province of South Holland and the southern half of what is now North Holland. Holland's influence continued to grow over the next two centuries. The Counts of Holland conquered most of [[Zeeland]] but it was not until 1289 that Count [[Floris V]] (1254–96) was able to subjugate the Frisians in West Friesland (that is, the northern half of North Holland).

===Renaissance and Reformation===

===Renaissance and Reformation===

===Politics to 1568===

===Politics to 1568===

Philip the Bold of Burgundy became the ruler of Flanders and Artois (1384) and his successors added Holland, Zeeland, Hainaut, Namur, Limburg, and Luxembourg. The dukes of Burgundy were rich and powerful, rivaling the greatest kings in the size of their armies and the magnificence of their courts. The military prowess and courtly splendor were funded by taxing the towns, which more and more frequently resisted; the city leaders also resented the Burgundian officials who tried to reduce their privileges and the rights of the states, the provincial assemblies formed to represent the interests of subjects in dealings with their rulers. The Netherlanders felt particularly repressed under Charles the Bold, who sought to create a middle kingdom between France and Germany. His death in 1477 gave the Netherlands a chance to wrest renewal of their privileges from his heiress, the Duchess Mary. But after her death in 1482, her widower, Maximilian of Austria, a Hapsburg, ruled as regent for their young son Philip and crushed the opposition to his rule. After the death of Philip in 1506, his son Charles I (1500–1558) became ruler of the Netherlands as well as king of Spain (1516–56); and (as Charles V), Holy Roman Emperor (1519–58). He taxed the Netherlands for the never-ending Hapsburg wars against France. To the Netherlands he added Friesland in 1524, Utrecht and Overijssel in 1528, Groningen in 1536, and Gelderland in 1543. Charles centralized power by establishing a privy council and councils of state and finance over the provincial assemblies and by formally uniting the 17 provinces of the Netherlands and the duchy of Burgundy in the "Burgundian circle" within the Holy Roman Empire.  A devout Catholic, he attempted to stop the spread of Protestantism in the Low Countries; he was somewhat more successful there than in Germany chiefly because the adherents of the new faith in the Netherlands had no princes to defend them against the emperor. Charles put down a political rebellion in Ghent in 1539-1540; his angry abolition of the town's historic privileges was a sign of his contempt for local rights and autonomy.  

Philip the Bold of Burgundy became the ruler of Flanders and Artois (1384) and his successors added Holland, Zeeland, Hainaut, Namur, Limburg, and Luxembourg. The dukes of Burgundy were rich and powerful, rivaling the greatest kings in the size of their armies and the magnificence of their courts. The military prowess and courtly splendor were funded by taxing the towns, which more and more frequently resisted; the city leaders also resented the Burgundian officials who tried to reduce their privileges and the rights of the states, the provincial assemblies formed to represent the interests of subjects in dealings with their rulers. The Netherlanders felt particularly repressed under Charles the Bold, who sought to create a middle kingdom between France and Germany. His death in 1477 gave the Netherlands a chance to wrest renewal of their privileges from his heiress, the Duchess Mary. But after her death in 1482, her widower, Maximilian of Austria, a Hapsburg, ruled as regent for their young son Philip and crushed the opposition to his rule. After the death of Philip in 1506, his son Charles I (1500–1558) became ruler of the Netherlands as well as king of Spain (1516–56); and (as Charles V), Holy Roman Emperor (1519–58). He taxed the Netherlands for the never-ending Hapsburg wars against France. To the Netherlands he added Friesland in 1524, Utrecht and Overijssel in 1528, Groningen in 1536, and Gelderland in 1543. Charles centralized power by establishing a privy council and councils of state and finance over the provincial assemblies and by formally uniting the 17 provinces of the Netherlands and the duchy of Burgundy in the "Burgundian circle" within the Holy Roman Empire.  A devout Catholic, he attempted to stop the spread of Protestantism in the Low Countries; he was somewhat more successful there than in Germany chiefly because the adherents of the new faith in the Netherlands had no princes to defend them against the emperor. Charles put down a political rebellion in Ghent in 1539–1540; his angry abolition of the town's historic privileges was a sign of his contempt for local rights and autonomy.  

The Netherlands had become the richest place in the world. Population reached 3 million in 1560, with 25 cities of 10,000 or more, by far the largest urban presence in Europe;  the trading and financial center of  and Antwerp, population 100,000, was especially important.

The Netherlands had become the richest place in the world. Population reached 3 million in 1560, with 25 cities of 10,000 or more, by far the largest urban presence in Europe;  the trading and financial center of  and Antwerp, population 100,000, was especially important.

===Dutch Revolt 1568-1648 ===

===Dutch Revolt 1568-1648 ===

The Dutch revolt against Spain, 1568-1648, is the most protracted rebellion in modern European history and it involved more continuous fighting than any modern war. Spain's failure was due to the determination of the Dutch and their military advantages, especially strength at sea, the defensibility of the northwestern provinces, as well as Spanish financial mismanagement and diversion of Spanish resources to other conflicts. Spanish diversions against England led to the disaster of the [[Spanish Armada]] (1588), while intervention to support of the Catholics in the French religious wars, reduced resources to suppress the revolt.  Yet Spain was reluctant to accept failure, partly because Dutch terms for peace were unacceptable and, by 1628, because Spain was also fighting to preserve her overseas trade from Dutch attacks. The Spanish economic and political collapse of the 1620s-1640s brought about a truce because it coincided with Dutch suspicions of France and increased hopes for the Dutch reconquest of Brazil.  

The Dutch revolt against Spain, 1568–1648, is the most protracted rebellion in modern European history and it involved more continuous fighting than any modern war. Spain's failure was due to the determination of the Dutch and their military advantages, especially strength at sea, the defensibility of the northwestern provinces, as well as Spanish financial mismanagement and diversion of Spanish resources to other conflicts. Spanish diversions against England led to the disaster of the [[Spanish Armada]] (1588), while intervention to support of the Catholics in the French religious wars, reduced resources to suppress the revolt.  Yet Spain was reluctant to accept failure, partly because Dutch terms for peace were unacceptable and, by 1628, because Spain was also fighting to preserve her overseas trade from Dutch attacks. The Spanish economic and political collapse of the 1620s-1640s brought about a truce because it coincided with Dutch suspicions of France and increased hopes for the Dutch reconquest of Brazil.  

Philip II (1527–98) reigned over the Netherlands not as king of Spain (which he also was), but as the hereditary duke, count or lord in each of the provinces.  He made the fatal mistake of excluding established political leaders in the Netherlands from the process of decision-making, relying instead at the critical moment (1559–64) on one person, Cardinal Granvelle (1517–86). The local elites led the revolt in part to restore their traditional roles.In 1567 he appointed Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, the duke of Alba (1508-1582) as governor. A religious fanatic and ruthless absolutist, Alba sought to totally crush the Dutch quest for religious toleration and political self-government. He set up the Court of Blood to spread terror throughout the provinces. Some 18,000 persons were executed and their properties confiscated. He raised taxes again and again, getting more animosity than money.<ref>Geoffrey Parker, ''The Grand Strategy of Philip II'' (1998); Geoffrey Parker, "The Origins of the Dutch Revolt." ''History Today'' 1984 34(july): 17-21. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>   

Philip II (1527–98) reigned over the Netherlands not as king of Spain (which he also was), but as the hereditary duke, count or lord in each of the provinces.  He made the fatal mistake of excluding established political leaders in the Netherlands from the process of decision-making, relying instead at the critical moment (1559–64) on one person, Cardinal Granvelle (1517–86). The local elites led the revolt in part to restore their traditional roles.In 1567 he appointed Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, the duke of Alba (1508-1582) as governor. A religious fanatic and ruthless absolutist, Alba sought to totally crush the Dutch quest for religious toleration and political self-government. He set up the Court of Blood to spread terror throughout the provinces. Some 18,000 persons were executed and their properties confiscated. He raised taxes again and again, getting more animosity than money.<ref>Geoffrey Parker, ''The Grand Strategy of Philip II'' (1998); Geoffrey Parker, "The Origins of the Dutch Revolt." ''History Today'' 1984 34(july): 17-21. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>   

[[Painting of the Dutch Century]]. In this period, a proliferation of distinct genres of [[painting]]s is conducted. With a small amount of religious painting, other genres like scenes of peasant life, [[landscape]]s, townscapes and cityscapes, seascapes, and [[still life]]s of various types, specially flower paintings, all were enormously popular.  

[[Painting of the Dutch Century]]. In this period, a proliferation of distinct genres of [[painting]]s is conducted. With a small amount of religious painting, other genres like scenes of peasant life, [[landscape]]s, townscapes and cityscapes, seascapes, and [[still life]]s of various types, specially flower paintings, all were enormously popular.  

Seventeenth century Netherlanders had a passion for depictions of city and countryside, either real or imaginary. Local scenery asserted Holland’s national pride, while vistas of foreign sites recalled the extent of its overseas commerce. Holland’s ocean ports teemed with fishing and trading ships, and the tiny country’s merchant fleet was almost as large as all the rest of maritime Europe’s combined.  [http://www.nga.gov/collection/gallery/gg50/gg50-main1.html] Maritime painting was enormously popular in Dutch Golden Age. Amsterdam was the largest artistic center.  

Seventeenth century Netherlanders had a passion for depictions of city and countryside, either real or imaginary. Local scenery asserted Holland's national pride, while vistas of foreign sites recalled the extent of its overseas commerce. Holland's ocean ports teemed with fishing and trading ships, and the tiny country's merchant fleet was almost as large as all the rest of maritime Europe's combined.  [http://www.nga.gov/collection/gallery/gg50/gg50-main1.html] Maritime painting was enormously popular in Dutch Golden Age. Amsterdam was the largest artistic center.  

=====Amsterdam=====

=====Amsterdam=====

In the Catholic south ('''Belgium'''),<ref>see [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/neth18151830.html online maps 1830, 1839]</ref> William's policies were unpopular. The French-speaking Walloons strenuously rejected his attempt to make Dutch the universal language of government. Flemings in the south spoke a Dutch dialect (Flemish) and welcomed the encouragement of Dutch with a revival of literature and popular culture. Other Flemings, notably the educated bourgeoisie, preferred to speak French. Although Catholics possessed legal equality, after centuries as the state church in the south, they resented their subordination to a government that was fundamentally Protestant in spirit and membership. Few Catholics held high office in state or army.  Political liberals in the south complained as well about the king's authoritarian methods. All southerners complained of underrepresentation in the national legislature. Although the south was industrializing and was more prosperous than the north the accumulated grievances allowed the multiple opposition forces to coalesce. The outbreak of revolution in France in 1830 was a signal for action, at first on behalf of autonomy for Belgium, as the southern provinces were now called, and later on behalf of total independence. William dithered and his half-hearted efforts to reconquer Belgium were thwarted both by the efforts of the Belgians themselves and by the diplomatic opposition of the great powers.  

In the Catholic south ('''Belgium'''),<ref>see [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/neth18151830.html online maps 1830, 1839]</ref> William's policies were unpopular. The French-speaking Walloons strenuously rejected his attempt to make Dutch the universal language of government. Flemings in the south spoke a Dutch dialect (Flemish) and welcomed the encouragement of Dutch with a revival of literature and popular culture. Other Flemings, notably the educated bourgeoisie, preferred to speak French. Although Catholics possessed legal equality, after centuries as the state church in the south, they resented their subordination to a government that was fundamentally Protestant in spirit and membership. Few Catholics held high office in state or army.  Political liberals in the south complained as well about the king's authoritarian methods. All southerners complained of underrepresentation in the national legislature. Although the south was industrializing and was more prosperous than the north the accumulated grievances allowed the multiple opposition forces to coalesce. The outbreak of revolution in France in 1830 was a signal for action, at first on behalf of autonomy for Belgium, as the southern provinces were now called, and later on behalf of total independence. William dithered and his half-hearted efforts to reconquer Belgium were thwarted both by the efforts of the Belgians themselves and by the diplomatic opposition of the great powers.  

At the London Conference of 1830–31, the chief powers of Europe ordered (in November, 1830) an armistice between the Dutch and the Belgians. The first draft for a treaty of separation of Belgium and the Netherlands was rejected by the Belgians. A second draft (June, 1831) was rejected by William I, who resumed hostilities. Franco-British intervention forced William to withdraw Dutch forces from Belgium late in 1831, and in 1833 an armistice of indefinite duration was concluded. Belgium was effectively independent but William’s attempts to recover Luxembourg and Limburg led to renewed tension. The London Conference of 1838–39 prepared the final Dutch-Belgian separation treaty of 1839 and divided Luxembourg and Limburg between the Dutch and Belgian crowns. The Kingdom of the Netherlands thereafter was made up of only the 11 northern provinces.<ref>J. C. H. Blom and E. Lamberts, eds. ''History of the Low Countries'' (1999) pp 297-312</ref>

At the London Conference of 1830–31, the chief powers of Europe ordered (in November, 1830) an armistice between the Dutch and the Belgians. The first draft for a treaty of separation of Belgium and the Netherlands was rejected by the Belgians. A second draft (June, 1831) was rejected by William I, who resumed hostilities. Franco-British intervention forced William to withdraw Dutch forces from Belgium late in 1831, and in 1833 an armistice of indefinite duration was concluded. Belgium was effectively independent but William's attempts to recover Luxembourg and Limburg led to renewed tension. The London Conference of 1838–39 prepared the final Dutch-Belgian separation treaty of 1839 and divided Luxembourg and Limburg between the Dutch and Belgian crowns. The Kingdom of the Netherlands thereafter was made up of only the 11 northern provinces.<ref>J. C. H. Blom and E. Lamberts, eds. ''History of the Low Countries'' (1999) pp 297-312</ref>

====Liberalism====

====Liberalism====

The H-Net list '''H-Low-Countries''' is published free by email and is edited by scholars. Its occasional messages serve an international community with diverse methodological approaches, archival experiences, teaching styles, and intellectual traditions, promotes discussion relevant to the Low Countries as a whole and to the different national histories in particular, with an emphasis on the Netherlands. H-Low-Countries offers conference announcements, questions and discussions; reviews of books, journals, and articles; and tables of contents of journals on the history of the Low Countries (in both Dutch and English).<ref>See [http://www.h-net.org/~lowc/ home page, with discussion logs]</ref>

The H-Net list '''H-Low-Countries''' is published free by email and is edited by scholars. Its occasional messages serve an international community with diverse methodological approaches, archival experiences, teaching styles, and intellectual traditions, promotes discussion relevant to the Low Countries as a whole and to the different national histories in particular, with an emphasis on the Netherlands. H-Low-Countries offers conference announcements, questions and discussions; reviews of books, journals, and articles; and tables of contents of journals on the history of the Low Countries (in both Dutch and English).<ref>See [http://www.h-net.org/~lowc/ home page, with discussion logs]</ref>

    

    

Once heralded as the leading event of modern Dutch history, the Dutch revolt lasted 1568-1648, and historians have worked to interpret it for even longer. Cruz (2007) explains the major points of contention and schools of thought surrounding interpretations of the deeper meaning of the Dutch bid for independence from Spanish rule. While the intellectual milieus of late-19th- and 20th century certainly left their mark on historical interpretations of this event, Cruz argues that writings about the revolt distinctively trace changing perceptions of the role played by small countries in the history of Western civilization. As is true in most contemporary historical scholarship, there are no more grand narratives for encompassing the Dutch revolt in its entirety, but Cruz points to future directions for understanding the revolt in its wider contexts, whether European or global.  Dutch and Belgian historiography since 1945 has moved away from seeing the revolt as the culmination of a long and inevitable process leading to independence. Instead historians examine the varied political and economic characters of the towns and provinces and on the weaknesses of attempts at centralization by the Habsburg rulers. The most important innovations have been in demographic and economic history, though the relationship between economics and political events remains controversial. The religious aspects of the revolt have been studied in terms of mentalities, exposing the minority position of Calvinism, while the international aspects have been studied more seriously by foreign historians than by the Dutch themselves.<ref>Laura Cruz, "The 80 Years' Question: the Dutch Revolt in Historical Perspective."  ''History Compass'' 2007 5(3): 914-934.</ref>

Once heralded as the leading event of modern Dutch history, the Dutch revolt lasted 1568–1648, and historians have worked to interpret it for even longer. Cruz (2007) explains the major points of contention and schools of thought surrounding interpretations of the deeper meaning of the Dutch bid for independence from Spanish rule. While the intellectual milieus of late-19th- and 20th century certainly left their mark on historical interpretations of this event, Cruz argues that writings about the revolt distinctively trace changing perceptions of the role played by small countries in the history of Western civilization. As is true in most contemporary historical scholarship, there are no more grand narratives for encompassing the Dutch revolt in its entirety, but Cruz points to future directions for understanding the revolt in its wider contexts, whether European or global.  Dutch and Belgian historiography since 1945 has moved away from seeing the revolt as the culmination of a long and inevitable process leading to independence. Instead historians examine the varied political and economic characters of the towns and provinces and on the weaknesses of attempts at centralization by the Habsburg rulers. The most important innovations have been in demographic and economic history, though the relationship between economics and political events remains controversial. The religious aspects of the revolt have been studied in terms of mentalities, exposing the minority position of Calvinism, while the international aspects have been studied more seriously by foreign historians than by the Dutch themselves.<ref>Laura Cruz, "The 80 Years' Question: the Dutch Revolt in Historical Perspective."  ''History Compass'' 2007 5(3): 914-934.</ref>

[[Pieter Geyl]] ((1887-1966)) was the leading historian of the Dutch Revolt, and a highly influential professor at the University of London (1919-1935) and at the State University of Utrecht (1935–57). He wrote a six-volume history of the Dutch-speaking peoples.<ref>Three volumes appeared in English translation, ''TheRevolit of the Netherlands (1555-1609)'' (1932); and ''The Netherlands in the Seventeeth Century'' (2 vol 1936, 1964).</ref> The Nazis imprisoned him in World War II. In his political views, Geyl adopted the views of the 17th century Dutch Louvestein faction, led by Johan van Oldenbarneveldt (1547-1619) and Johan de Witt (1625–72). It stood for liberty, toleration, and national interests in contrast to the Orange stadholders who sought to promote their own self-interest. According to Geyl, the Dutch Republic reached the peak of its powers during the 17th century. He was also a staunch nationalist and suggested that Flanders could split off from Belgium and join the Netherlands. Later he decried what he called radical nationalism and stressed more the vitality of Western Civilization. Geyl was highly critical of the [[world history]] approach of [[Arnold J. Toynbee]].<ref>Herbert H. Rowen, "The Historical Work of Pieter Geyl." ''Journal of Modern History'' 1965 37(1): 35-49. Issn: 0022-2801 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1874563  in Jstor]</ref>

[[Pieter Geyl]] ((1887-1966)) was the leading historian of the Dutch Revolt, and a highly influential professor at the University of London (1919-1935) and at the State University of Utrecht (1935–57). He wrote a six-volume history of the Dutch-speaking peoples.<ref>Three volumes appeared in English translation, ''TheRevolit of the Netherlands (1555-1609)'' (1932); and ''The Netherlands in the Seventeeth Century'' (2 vol 1936, 1964).</ref> The Nazis imprisoned him in World War II. In his political views, Geyl adopted the views of the 17th century Dutch Louvestein faction, led by Johan van Oldenbarneveldt (1547-1619) and Johan de Witt (1625–72). It stood for liberty, toleration, and national interests in contrast to the Orange stadholders who sought to promote their own self-interest. According to Geyl, the Dutch Republic reached the peak of its powers during the 17th century. He was also a staunch nationalist and suggested that Flanders could split off from Belgium and join the Netherlands. Later he decried what he called radical nationalism and stressed more the vitality of Western Civilization. Geyl was highly critical of the [[world history]] approach of [[Arnold J. Toynbee]].<ref>Herbert H. Rowen, "The Historical Work of Pieter Geyl." ''Journal of Modern History'' 1965 37(1): 35-49. Issn: 0022-2801 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1874563  in Jstor]</ref>

===Dutch revolt===

===Dutch revolt===

* Cruz, Laura. "The 80 Years' Question: the Dutch Revolt in Historical Perspective."  ''History Compass'' 2007 5(3): 914-934. Issn: 1478-0542 Fulltext: [http://www.blackwell-compass.com/subject/history/article_view?highlight_query=cruz&type=std&slop=0&fuzzy=0.5&last_results=query%3Dcruz%26topics%3D%26content_types%3DALL&parent=void&sortby=relevance&offset=0&article_id=hico_articles_bpl400 History Compass]

* Cruz, Laura. "The 80 Years' Question: the Dutch Revolt in Historical Perspective."  ''History Compass'' 2007 5(3): 914–934. Issn: 1478-0542 Fulltext: [http://www.blackwell-compass.com/subject/history/article_view?highlight_query=cruz&type=std&slop=0&fuzzy=0.5&last_results=query%3Dcruz%26topics%3D%26content_types%3DALL&parent=void&sortby=relevance&offset=0&article_id=hico_articles_bpl400 History Compass]

* Darby, Graham. ''The Origins and Development of the Dutch Revolt'' (2001), 208pp [http://www.questia.com/read/108015314?title=The%20Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20the%20Dutch%20Revolt online edition]; also [https://www.amazon.com/Origins-Development-Dutch-Revolt/dp/0415253799/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209804905&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]

* Darby, Graham. ''The Origins and Development of the Dutch Revolt'' (2001), 208pp [http://www.questia.com/read/108015314?title=The%20Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20the%20Dutch%20Revolt online edition]; also [https://www.amazon.com/Origins-Development-Dutch-Revolt/dp/0415253799/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209804905&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]

*  Geyl, Pieter. ''History of the Dutch Speaking Peoples 1555-1648'' (new edition 2001)  

*  Geyl, Pieter. ''History of the Dutch Speaking Peoples 1555-1648'' (new edition 2001)  

* Nierop, H. F. K.  ''The Nobility of Holland: From Knights to Regents, 1500-1650''  (2nd ed. 1993) [https://www.amazon.com/Nobility-Holland-Knights-1500-1650-Cambridge/dp/0521392608/ref=sid_av_dp excerpt and text search]  

* Nierop, H. F. K.  ''The Nobility of Holland: From Knights to Regents, 1500-1650''  (2nd ed. 1993) [https://www.amazon.com/Nobility-Holland-Knights-1500-1650-Cambridge/dp/0521392608/ref=sid_av_dp excerpt and text search]  

* Motley, John Lothrop. ''The Rise of the Dutch Republic, 1555-84'' (2 vol. 1856) [https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4836/4836.txt Gutenberg editions online] and ''History of the United Netherlands, 1584-1609'' (4 vol., 1860–67) [https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4885/4885.txt Gutenberg editions online]

* Motley, John Lothrop. ''The Rise of the Dutch Republic, 1555-84'' (2 vol. 1856) [https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4836/4836.txt Gutenberg editions online] and ''History of the United Netherlands, 1584-1609'' (4 vol., 1860–67) [https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4885/4885.txt Gutenberg editions online]

**Robert Wheaton, "Motley and the Dutch Historians." ''New England Quarterly'' 1962 35(3): 318-336. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/363823 in Jstor]

**Robert Wheaton, "Motley and the Dutch Historians." ''New England Quarterly'' 1962 35(3): 318–336. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/363823 in Jstor]

* Parker, Geoffrey. ''The Dutch Revolt'' (1977), 327pp

* Parker, Geoffrey. ''The Dutch Revolt'' (1977), 327pp

*  Tracy, James. ''The Founding of the Dutch Republic: War, Finance, and Politics in Holland, 1572-1588'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Founding-Dutch-Republic-Politics-1572-1588/dp/0199209111/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209964440&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]

*  Tracy, James. ''The Founding of the Dutch Republic: War, Finance, and Politics in Holland, 1572-1588'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Founding-Dutch-Republic-Politics-1572-1588/dp/0199209111/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209964440&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]

===Cultural and social studies===

===Cultural and social studies===

* Avci, Gamze. "Comparing Integration Policies and Outcomes: Turks in the Netherlands and Germany." ''Turkish Studies'' 2006 7(1): 67-84. Issn: 1468-3849 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* Avci, Gamze. "Comparing Integration Policies and Outcomes: Turks in the Netherlands and Germany." ''Turkish Studies'' 2006 7(1): 67–84. Issn: 1468-3849 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* Berkel, Klaas van; VanHelden, Albert; and Palm, Lodewijk, eds.  ''A History of Science in the Netherlands: Survey, Themes and Reference.'' (1999). 659 pp.   

* Berkel, Klaas van; VanHelden, Albert; and Palm, Lodewijk, eds.  ''A History of Science in the Netherlands: Survey, Themes and Reference.'' (1999). 659 pp.   

*  Blom, J. C. H.; Fu ks-Manfield, R. G.; and Schoffer, I., eds.  ''The History of the Jews in the Netherlands.'' (2002). 508 pp.   

*  Blom, J. C. H.; Fu ks-Manfield, R. G.; and Schoffer, I., eds.  ''The History of the Jews in the Netherlands.'' (2002). 508 pp.   

===Dutch Empire and economic history===

===Dutch Empire and economic history===

* Andrade, Tonio. "The Rise and Fall of Dutch Taiwan, 1624-1662: Cooperative Colonization and the Statist Model of European Expansion." ''Journal of World History'' 2006 17(4): 429-450. Issn: 1045-6007 Fulltext: Project Muse

* Andrade, Tonio. "The Rise and Fall of Dutch Taiwan, 1624-1662: Cooperative Colonization and the Statist Model of European Expansion." ''Journal of World History'' 2006 17(4): 429–450. Issn: 1045-6007 Fulltext: Project Muse

* Arasaratnam, Sinnappah. ''Ceylon and the Dutch, 1600-1800: External Influences and Internal Change in Early Modern Sri Lanka'' (1996), 332pp

* Arasaratnam, Sinnappah. ''Ceylon and the Dutch, 1600-1800: External Influences and Internal Change in Early Modern Sri Lanka'' (1996), 332pp

* Aymard, Maurice, ed. ''Dutch Capitalism and World Capitalism'' (1982).  

* Aymard, Maurice, ed. ''Dutch Capitalism and World Capitalism'' (1982).  

*  Beekman, E. M.  ''Troubled Pleasures: Dutch Colonial Literature from the East Indies, 1600-1950.'' (1996). 654 pp.   

*  Beekman, E. M.  ''Troubled Pleasures: Dutch Colonial Literature from the East Indies, 1600-1950.'' (1996). 654 pp.   

* Bogucka M. "Amsterdam and the Baltic in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century", ''Economic History Review,'' 2nd ser. 26 (1973), 433-47. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2593544 in JSTOR]

* Bogucka M. "Amsterdam and the Baltic in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century", ''Economic History Review,'' 2nd ser. 26 (1973), 433–47. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2593544 in JSTOR]

* Boxer C. R. ''The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1660-1800'' (1965).  

* Boxer C. R. ''The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1660-1800'' (1965).  

* Dash, Mike. ''Tulipomania. The Story of the World's Most Coveted Flower and the Extraordinary Passions It Aroused.'' London: Victor Gollancz, 1999. ISBN 0575067233. Very entertaining and informative book about [[tulip]]s and the Dutch in the 17th century

* Dash, Mike. ''Tulipomania. The Story of the World's Most Coveted Flower and the Extraordinary Passions It Aroused.'' London: Victor Gollancz, 1999. ISBN 0575067233. Very entertaining and informative book about [[tulip]]s and the Dutch in the 17th century

* Van Hoesel, Roger, and Rajneesh Narula. ''Multinational Enterprises from the Netherlands'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/103819399?title=Multinational%20Enterprises%20from%20the%20Netherlands online edition]

* Van Hoesel, Roger, and Rajneesh Narula. ''Multinational Enterprises from the Netherlands'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/103819399?title=Multinational%20Enterprises%20from%20the%20Netherlands online edition]

* Veenendaal, Augustus.  ''Railways in the Netherlands: A Brief History.'' (2001) 235 pp.

* Veenendaal, Augustus.  ''Railways in the Netherlands: A Brief History.'' (2001) 235 pp.

* Vink, Markus. "'The World's Oldest Trade': Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century," ''Journal of World History'' 24.2 (2003) 131-177 in Project Muse

* Vink, Markus. "'The World's Oldest Trade': Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century," ''Journal of World History'' 24.2 (2003) 131–177 in Project Muse

* Vries, Jan de, and Ad van der  Woude.  ''The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure, and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 1500-1815.'' (1997). 767 pp.   

* Vries, Jan de, and Ad van der  Woude.  ''The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure, and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 1500-1815.'' (1997). 767 pp.   

**Arthur van Riel, "Review: Rethinking the Economic History of the Dutch Republic: The Rise and Decline of Economic Modernity Before the Advent of Industrialized Growth," ''The Journal of Economic History,'' Vol. 56, No. 1 (Mar., 1996), pp.&nbsp;223–229 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2124027 in JSTOR]

**Arthur van Riel, "Review: Rethinking the Economic History of the Dutch Republic: The Rise and Decline of Economic Modernity Before the Advent of Industrialized Growth," ''The Journal of Economic History,'' Vol. 56, No. 1 (Mar., 1996), pp.&nbsp;223–229 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2124027 in JSTOR]

===Historiography===

===Historiography===

* Blom, J. C. H. "Ludovico Locuto, Porta Aperta: Enige Notities over Deel XII En XIII Van L. De Jongs Koninkrijk Der Nederlanden in De Tweede Wereldoorlog." [After Louis Spoke, Everything Was Clear: Some Notes on Volumes 12 and 13 of Louis De Jong's Kingdom of the Netherlands in World War Ii]. ''Bijdragen En Mededelingen Betreffende De Geschiedenis Der Nederlanden'' 1990 105(2): 244-264. Issn: 0165-0505 review of a great masterpiece.  

* Blom, J. C. H. "Ludovico Locuto, Porta Aperta: Enige Notities over Deel XII En XIII Van L. De Jongs Koninkrijk Der Nederlanden in De Tweede Wereldoorlog." [After Louis Spoke, Everything Was Clear: Some Notes on Volumes 12 and 13 of Louis De Jong's Kingdom of the Netherlands in World War Ii]. ''Bijdragen En Mededelingen Betreffende De Geschiedenis Der Nederlanden'' 1990 105(2): 244–264. Issn: 0165-0505 review of a great masterpiece.  

* Buyst, Erik; Smits, Jan Pieter; and Zanden, Jan Luiten Van. "National Accounts for the Low Countries, 1800-1990." ''Scandinavian Economic History Review'' 1995 43(1): 53-76. Issn: 0358-5522 focus on data for 1921-39 and rates of industrialization during the first half of the 19th century

* Buyst, Erik; Smits, Jan Pieter; and Zanden, Jan Luiten Van. "National Accounts for the Low Countries, 1800-1990." ''Scandinavian Economic History Review'' 1995 43(1): 53–76. Issn: 0358-5522 focus on data for 1921-39 and rates of industrialization during the first half of the 19th century

* Cruz, Laura. "The 80 Years' Question: the Dutch Revolt in Historical Perspective."  ''History Compass'' 2007 5(3): 914-934. Issn: 1478-0542 Fulltext: [http://www.blackwell-compass.com/subject/history/article_view?highlight_query=cruz&type=std&slop=0&fuzzy=0.5&last_results=query%3Dcruz%26topics%3D%26content_types%3DALL&parent=void&sortby=relevance&offset=0&article_id=hico_articles_bpl400 History Compass]

* Cruz, Laura. "The 80 Years' Question: the Dutch Revolt in Historical Perspective."  ''History Compass'' 2007 5(3): 914–934. Issn: 1478-0542 Fulltext: [http://www.blackwell-compass.com/subject/history/article_view?highlight_query=cruz&type=std&slop=0&fuzzy=0.5&last_results=query%3Dcruz%26topics%3D%26content_types%3DALL&parent=void&sortby=relevance&offset=0&article_id=hico_articles_bpl400 History Compass]

*  Duke, A. C. and Tamse, C. A., eds. ''Clio's Mirror: Historiography in Britain and the Netherlands.'' Zutphen, Netherlands: De Walburg, 1985. 238 pp.   

*  Duke, A. C. and Tamse, C. A., eds. ''Clio's Mirror: Historiography in Britain and the Netherlands.'' Zutphen, Netherlands: De Walburg, 1985. 238 pp.   

* Gijswijt-hofstra, Marijke. "The European Witchcraft Debate and the Dutch Variant." ''Social History'' 1990 15(2): 181-194. Issn: 0307-1022  

* Gijswijt-hofstra, Marijke. "The European Witchcraft Debate and the Dutch Variant." ''Social History'' 1990 15(2): 181–194. Issn: 0307-1022  

* Linden, Marcel van der, and Jan Lucassen. "Social History in the Netherlands." ''Tijdschrift Voor Sociale Geschiedenis'' 1997 23(2): 209-222. Issn: 0303-9935. Argues [[Social history]] has been thriving since the 1970s, with representation from all stylistic and methodological approaches, albeit with weak theory. No major shifts from the qualitative to the quantitative or from statistical series to microhistory have taken place. Pluralism and eclecticism seem to be the rule

* Linden, Marcel van der, and Jan Lucassen. "Social History in the Netherlands." ''Tijdschrift Voor Sociale Geschiedenis'' 1997 23(2): 209–222. Issn: 0303–9935. Argues [[Social history]] has been thriving since the 1970s, with representation from all stylistic and methodological approaches, albeit with weak theory. No major shifts from the qualitative to the quantitative or from statistical series to microhistory have taken place. Pluralism and eclecticism seem to be the rule

* Schmidt, Ariadne. "Vrouwenarbeid in De Vroegmoderne Tijd in Nederland," [Women's Work in the Early Modern Netherlands]. ''Tijdschrift Voor Sociale En Economische Geschiedenis'' 2005 2(3): 2-21. Issn: 1572-1701

* Schmidt, Ariadne. "Vrouwenarbeid in De Vroegmoderne Tijd in Nederland," [Women's Work in the Early Modern Netherlands]. ''Tijdschrift Voor Sociale En Economische Geschiedenis'' 2005 2(3): 2-21. Issn: 1572-1701

* Snelders, H. A. M. "History of Science Today, 2. History of Science in the Netherlands," ''The British Journal for the History of Science,'' Vol. 20, No. 3 (Jul., 1987), pp.&nbsp;343–348 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4026361  in JSTOR]

* Snelders, H. A. M. "History of Science Today, 2. History of Science in the Netherlands," ''The British Journal for the History of Science,'' Vol. 20, No. 3 (Jul., 1987), pp.&nbsp;343–348 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4026361  in JSTOR]

* Voerman, Gerrit. "De Stand Van De Geschiedschrijving Van De Nederlandse Politieke Partijen" [The State of Historiography on Dutch Political Parties]. ''Bijdragen En Mededelingen Betreffende De Geschiedenis Der Nederlanden'' 2005 120(2): 226-269. Issn: 0165-0505  

* Voerman, Gerrit. "De Stand Van De Geschiedschrijving Van De Nederlandse Politieke Partijen" [The State of Historiography on Dutch Political Parties]. ''Bijdragen En Mededelingen Betreffende De Geschiedenis Der Nederlanden'' 2005 120(2): 226–269. Issn: 0165-0505  

* Vries, Jan de. "Measuring the Impact of Climate on History: The Search for Appropriate Methodologies," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History,'' Vol. 10, No. 4, (Spring, 1980), pp.&nbsp;599–630; uses meteorological data to generate correlations between climate and dairy production, arable crop yields, canal transportation, and fuel prices, 17th-18th centuries. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/203061 in JSTOR]

* Vries, Jan de. "Measuring the Impact of Climate on History: The Search for Appropriate Methodologies," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History,'' Vol. 10, No. 4, (Spring, 1980), pp.&nbsp;599–630; uses meteorological data to generate correlations between climate and dairy production, arable crop yields, canal transportation, and fuel prices, 17th-18th centuries. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/203061 in JSTOR]

====References====

====References====