Changes

==Textiles==

==Textiles==

The industrial revolution was headed by the British cotton industry. For centuries this market had been dominated by individuals; cloth would be spun and woven by hand. However, in the 1700s advances in technology began to drive out the homemade cotton industry. Such machines Richard Arkwright’s water frame spinning machine and Edmund Cartwright’s power loom could make higher quality cloth and sell it for a cheaper price. Britain's cotton textile production was boosted beyond any competition.  

The industrial revolution was headed by the British cotton industry. For centuries this market had been dominated by individuals; cloth would be spun and woven by hand. However, in the 1700s advances in technology began to drive out the homemade cotton industry. Such machines Richard Arkwright's water frame spinning machine and Edmund Cartwright's power loom could make higher quality cloth and sell it for a cheaper price. Britain's cotton textile production was boosted beyond any competition.  

For centuries the spinning of fibers into yarn and the weaving of yarn into cloth had remained a manual operation. In England, for example, women and children, working at home, combed cotton with wire brushes and spun it by hand; the father then wove the cotton on a hand loom. Output was expensive and consumed locally. Most of Britain's cloth was home-made from wool in the West Country, Yorkshire and Lancashire. 1702 a critical turning point occurred when Thomas Cotchett and George Sorocold built a silk mill powered by a waterwheel at Derby. Their mill was probably Britain's first factory, for it was a single establishment with complex machinery, a source of power and accommodation for workers.  

For centuries the spinning of fibers into yarn and the weaving of yarn into cloth had remained a manual operation. In England, for example, women and children, working at home, combed cotton with wire brushes and spun it by hand; the father then wove the cotton on a hand loom. Output was expensive and consumed locally. Most of Britain's cloth was home-made from wool in the West Country, Yorkshire and Lancashire. 1702 a critical turning point occurred when Thomas Cotchett and George Sorocold built a silk mill powered by a waterwheel at Derby. Their mill was probably Britain's first factory, for it was a single establishment with complex machinery, a source of power and accommodation for workers.  

see [[Steel industry]]

see [[Steel industry]]

Throughout the Middle Ages iron was smelted using charcoal, however in the eighteenth century, new methods of iron production were discovered; the resulting iron was of higher quality than ever before. These advances, such as the process developed by Henry Cort in 1780’s, greatly encouraged the use of machinery in other industries.  

Throughout the Middle Ages iron was smelted using charcoal, however in the eighteenth century, new methods of iron production were discovered; the resulting iron was of higher quality than ever before. These advances, such as the process developed by Henry Cort in 1780's, greatly encouraged the use of machinery in other industries.  

Iron was so durable that it became the preferred metal for tools and equipment until displaced by steel after 1860.<ref>Small amounts of steel were produced before the 1860s, but it was five times stronger than cast iron.</ref>  Britain had iron ores but lacked a process to produce iron in quantity until in 1760 John Smeaton invented a blast furnace that could smelt iron both quickly and cheaply.  His invention used an air-blast produced by a fan run by a waterwheel. In 1783 Henry Cort introduced the puddling, or reverberatory furnace, in which the final product was a pasty solid instead of a liquid. It was rolled into balls, squeezed and rolled to eliminate the impurities, or slag.  The result was malleable iron in large quantities.  The greatest of the early ironmasters, John Wilkinson (1728-1808) invented new machinery to process the iron. In 1779 the first cast-iron bridge was constructed across the Severn; in 1790 the first iron ship was launched. By 1830 Britain was producing 700,000 tons of iron a year; the amount quadrupled a quarter-century later, with centers in Scotland, South Wales, and Staffordshire. Railway builders were the chief customer. In 1847-48 they bought 3 million tons for rolling-stock, bridge building, and station building for 2000 new miles, plus the demands of the 3000 previously built miles of railway.<ref>Clapham 1:425-28</ref>

Iron was so durable that it became the preferred metal for tools and equipment until displaced by steel after 1860.<ref>Small amounts of steel were produced before the 1860s, but it was five times stronger than cast iron.</ref>  Britain had iron ores but lacked a process to produce iron in quantity until in 1760 John Smeaton invented a blast furnace that could smelt iron both quickly and cheaply.  His invention used an air-blast produced by a fan run by a waterwheel. In 1783 Henry Cort introduced the puddling, or reverberatory furnace, in which the final product was a pasty solid instead of a liquid. It was rolled into balls, squeezed and rolled to eliminate the impurities, or slag.  The result was malleable iron in large quantities.  The greatest of the early ironmasters, John Wilkinson (1728-1808) invented new machinery to process the iron. In 1779 the first cast-iron bridge was constructed across the Severn; in 1790 the first iron ship was launched. By 1830 Britain was producing 700,000 tons of iron a year; the amount quadrupled a quarter-century later, with centers in Scotland, South Wales, and Staffordshire. Railway builders were the chief customer. In 1847-48 they bought 3 million tons for rolling-stock, bridge building, and station building for 2000 new miles, plus the demands of the 3000 previously built miles of railway.<ref>Clapham 1:425-28</ref>

* Clapham, J.H. ''An Economic History Of Modern Britain 1820-1850'' (2 vol 1939) [http://www.archive.org/details/economichistoryo033287mbp vol 1 "The Early Railway Age" online]

* Clapham, J.H. ''An Economic History Of Modern Britain 1820-1850'' (2 vol 1939) [http://www.archive.org/details/economichistoryo033287mbp vol 1 "The Early Railway Age" online]

* Crafts, N. F. R. ''British Economic Growth during the Industrial Revolution,'' 1985.

* Crafts, N. F. R. ''British Economic Growth during the Industrial Revolution,'' 1985.

* Crafts, N.F.R., and C. K. Harley. "Output Growth and the Industrial Revolution: A Restatement of the Crafts-Harley View." ''Economic History Review'' 1992.  45: 703-730.  in JSTOR

* Crafts, N.F.R., and C. K. Harley. "Output Growth and the Industrial Revolution: A Restatement of the Crafts-Harley View." ''Economic History Review'' 1992.  45: 703–730.  in JSTOR

* Crafts, N.F.R. "Productivity Growth in the Industrial Revolution: A New Growth Accounting Perspective," ''Journal of Economic History'' (Jun 2004) Vol 64#2 pp 521–535 online at Cambridge University Press Journals

* Crafts, N.F.R. "Productivity Growth in the Industrial Revolution: A New Growth Accounting Perspective," ''Journal of Economic History'' (Jun 2004) Vol 64#2 pp 521–535 online at Cambridge University Press Journals

* Deane, Phyllis. ''The First Industrial Revolution'' (2nd ed 2003) [https://www.amazon.com/First-Industrial-Revolution-P-Deane/dp/0521296099/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200911607&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

* Deane, Phyllis. ''The First Industrial Revolution'' (2nd ed 2003) [https://www.amazon.com/First-Industrial-Revolution-P-Deane/dp/0521296099/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200911607&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

* Checkland, S. G. ''The Rise of Industrial Society in England, 1815-1885,'' 1964.

* Checkland, S. G. ''The Rise of Industrial Society in England, 1815-1885,'' 1964.

* Clapham, J. H. ''An Economic History of Modern Britain: The Early Railway Age, 1820-1850'' (1926) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=83597738 online edition]

* Clapham, J. H. ''An Economic History of Modern Britain: The Early Railway Age, 1820-1850'' (1926) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=83597738 online edition]

* de Vries, Jan. 1994. "The Industrial Revolution and the Industrious Revolution." ''Journal of Economic History'' 58.1: 249-270. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0507(199406)54%3A2%3C249%3ATIRATI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]

* de Vries, Jan. 1994. "The Industrial Revolution and the Industrious Revolution." ''Journal of Economic History'' 58.1: 249–270. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0507(199406)54%3A2%3C249%3ATIRATI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]

* Feinstein, Charles H. "Pessimism Perpetuated: Real Wages and the Standard of Living in Britain during and after the Industrial Revolution." ''Journal of Economic History'' 1998.  58.3: 625-658. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0507(199809)58%3A3%3C625%3APPRWAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2 in JSTOR]

* Feinstein, Charles H. "Pessimism Perpetuated: Real Wages and the Standard of Living in Britain during and after the Industrial Revolution." ''Journal of Economic History'' 1998.  58.3: 625–658. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0507(199809)58%3A3%3C625%3APPRWAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2 in JSTOR]

*  Halevy, Elie.  ''A History of the English People in the Nineteenth Century. Volume: 1: England in 1815'' (1913) pp 256–337 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24585289# online edition]

*  Halevy, Elie.  ''A History of the English People in the Nineteenth Century. Volume: 1: England in 1815'' (1913) pp 256–337 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24585289# online edition]

* Hobsbawm, Eric J. ''The Age of Revolution: 1789-1848''  1962, by leading Marxist  

* Hobsbawm, Eric J. ''The Age of Revolution: 1789-1848''  1962, by leading Marxist