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Like other [[liberal]]s, Oppenheimer was not as smart as he wanted to be:  he was rejected by [[Ernest Rutherford]] as a student, and was never at the high intellectual level of [[Enrico Fermi]], [[John von Neumann]], or [[Robert Dicke]]. Like a fellow communist later on, former [[CIA]] director [[John Brennan]], Oppenheimer's security clearance was permanently revoked by presidential directive for [[colluding]] with the [[KGB]] and sparking the [[Cold War]] [[nuclear arms race]]. In December 2022, [[Leftist]]s persuaded [[Biden]] to reinstate Oppenheimer's security clearance in a political stunt more than 55 years after he died.<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/dec/17/j-robert-oppenheimer-atomic-bomb-security-clearance</ref>

 

Like other [[liberal]]s, Oppenheimer was not as smart as he wanted to be:  he was rejected by [[Ernest Rutherford]] as a student, and was not at the high level of [[Enrico Fermi]], [[John von Neumann]], or [[Robert Dicke]]. Like a fellow communist later on, former [[CIA]] director [[John Brennan]], Oppenheimer's security clearance was permanently revoked by presidential directive for [[colluding]] with the [[KGB]] and sparking the [[Cold War]] nuclear arms race.

== Early life ==

== Early life ==

Oppenheimer was born in [[New York]] in 1904,<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 7 (PDF 17)</ref> the eldest son of Julius and Ella (née Freedman) Oppenheimer. His father was a wealthy textile importer who had immigrated from [[Germany]] in 1895, his mother a scion of [[Philadelphia]] society who had studied painting in Paris.<ref>[http://www.lanl.gov/history/people/oppenheimer.shtml The Oppenheimer Years, 1943-1945], Los Alamos National Laboratory</ref> They collected original art, including a Renoir and three Van Goghs; they also owned a 40-foot yacht,<ref>[[#refPK06|Pais, Crease 2006]]: 4</ref> and his father gave him his own 27-foot sloop.<ref>[[#refRhodes86|Rhodes 1986]]: 123</ref> Precocious but socially backward, Oppenheimer began collecting minerals at age five, was elected to the New York Minerological Club at eleven,<ref>[http://www.lanl.gov/history/people/oppenheimer.shtml The Oppenheimer Years, 1943-1945], Los Alamos National Laboratory</ref> and delivered his first paper there at age 12.<ref>Peter Goodchild, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A4MgAQAAIAAJ J. Robert Oppenheimer: Shatterer of Worlds]'' (Fromm International Pub. Corp., 1985) ISBN 0880640219, p. 11</ref> His shy awkwardness earned him the nickname "Booby" Oppenheimer among his peers; he was bullied, culminating in being locked naked in an icehouse overnight as retribution for alleged tattling.<ref>[[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: 4</ref>

Oppenheimer was born in [[New York]] in 1904,<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 7 (PDF 17)</ref> the eldest son of Julius and Ella (née Freedman) Oppenheimer. His father was a wealthy textile importer who had immigrated from [[Germany]] in 1895, while his mother was a scion of [[Philadelphia]] society who had studied painting in Paris.<ref>[http://www.lanl.gov/history/people/oppenheimer.shtml The Oppenheimer Years, 1943-1945], Los Alamos National Laboratory</ref> They collected original art, including a Renoir and three Van Goghs; they also owned a 40-foot yacht,<ref>[[#refPK06|Pais, Crease 2006]]: 4</ref> and his father gave him his own 27-foot sloop.<ref>[[#refRhodes86|Rhodes 1986]]: 123</ref> Precocious but socially backward, Oppenheimer began collecting minerals at age five, was elected to the New York Minerological Club at eleven,<ref>[http://www.lanl.gov/history/people/oppenheimer.shtml The Oppenheimer Years, 1943-1945], Los Alamos National Laboratory</ref> and delivered his first paper there at age 12.<ref>Peter Goodchild, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A4MgAQAAIAAJ J. Robert Oppenheimer: Shatterer of Worlds]'' (Fromm International Pub. Corp., 1985) ISBN 0880640219, p. 11</ref> His shy awkwardness earned him the nickname "Booby" Oppenheimer among his peers; he was bullied, culminating in being locked naked in an icehouse overnight as retribution for alleged tattling.<ref>[[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: 4</ref>

Oppenheimer's parents were of [[Jewish]] descent, but did not observe religious traditions, sending him (via limousine)<ref>Jonathan Beard, "[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18424793.500 Biographies: J. Robert Oppenheimer and Patrick Blackett]," ''New Scientist'', December 25, 2004</ref> to New York's elite<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 431</ref> Ethical Culture<ref>Sean McManus, "[http://nymag.com/news/features/46214/ If God Is Dead, Who Gets His House?]" ''New York'', April 21, 2008</ref> Society School.<ref>[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Bios/Oppenheimer.shtml J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904 - 1967)], atomicarchive.com</ref> Ethical Culture, a [[Secular Humanism|secular humanist]] religion,<ref>[http://openjurist.org/249/f2d/127 Washington Ethical Society v. District of Columbia], 101 U.S. App. D.C. 371, 249 F.2d 127. Cf. Jone Johnson Lewis, [http://aeuleaders.net/web/content/ethical-culture-religion Ethical Culture as Religion], American Ethical Union Library, 2003; Tom Flynn, [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=sh_defined2 Secular Humanism Defined], Council for Secular Humanism; [http://www.americanhumanist.org/Who_We_Are/About_Humanism/Humanist_Manifesto_II Humanist Manifesto II], American Humanist Association</ref> is indifferent to the existence of [[God]], replacing the [[Ten Commandments]]<ref>[http://www.ethicalsociety.org/article.php?id=30 Is Ethical Culture based on Judaism and the Ten Commandments?], Washington Ethical Society</ref> with a commitment to "social justice."<ref>Joseph Chuman, [http://www.ethicalfocus.org/dr-joe-chuman/chuman-platforms/113-ethical-culture-and-the-ongoing-quest-for-social-justice Ethical Culture and the Ongoing Quest for Social Justice], The Ethical Culture Society of Bergen County</ref> Such an education conditions students to yield to "the totalitarian temptation,"<ref>An "unacknowledged desire to live under Stalinism, not in spite of what it is, but because of what it is." Jean François Revel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HTqFAAAAMAAJ The Totalitarian Temptation]'' (Doubleday, 1977) ISBN 0385122748, p. 25</ref> as [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1974/hayek.html Nobel Prize-winning] economist [[Friedrich Hayek]] observed:

Oppenheimer's parents were of [[Jewish]] descent, but did not observe religious traditions, sending him (via limousine)<ref>Jonathan Beard, "[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18424793.500 Biographies: J. Robert Oppenheimer and Patrick Blackett]," ''New Scientist'', December 25, 2004</ref> to New York's elite<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 431</ref> Ethical Culture<ref>Sean McManus, "[http://nymag.com/news/features/46214/ If God Is Dead, Who Gets His House?]" ''New York'', April 21, 2008</ref> Society School.<ref>[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Bios/Oppenheimer.shtml J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904 - 1967)], atomicarchive.com</ref> Ethical Culture, a [[Secular Humanism|secular humanist]] religion,<ref>[http://openjurist.org/249/f2d/127 Washington Ethical Society v. District of Columbia], 101 U.S. App. D.C. 371, 249 F.2d 127. Cf. Jone Johnson Lewis, [http://aeuleaders.net/web/content/ethical-culture-religion Ethical Culture as Religion], American Ethical Union Library, 2003; Tom Flynn, [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=sh_defined2 Secular Humanism Defined], Council for Secular Humanism; [http://www.americanhumanist.org/Who_We_Are/About_Humanism/Humanist_Manifesto_II Humanist Manifesto II], American Humanist Association</ref> is indifferent to the existence of [[God]], replacing the [[Ten Commandments]]<ref>[http://www.ethicalsociety.org/article.php?id=30 Is Ethical Culture based on Judaism and the Ten Commandments?], Washington Ethical Society</ref> with a commitment to "social justice."<ref>Joseph Chuman, [http://www.ethicalfocus.org/dr-joe-chuman/chuman-platforms/113-ethical-culture-and-the-ongoing-quest-for-social-justice Ethical Culture and the Ongoing Quest for Social Justice], The Ethical Culture Society of Bergen County</ref> Such an education conditions students to yield to "the totalitarian temptation,"<ref>An "unacknowledged desire to live under Stalinism, not in spite of what it is, but because of what it is." Jean François Revel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HTqFAAAAMAAJ The Totalitarian Temptation]'' (Doubleday, 1977) ISBN 0385122748, p. 25</ref> as [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1974/hayek.html Nobel Prize-winning] economist [[Friedrich Hayek]] observed:

{{cquote|Oppenheimer's feeling toward Blackett was one of intense admiration, combined perhaps with an intense jealousy&mdash;jealousy because of his feeling that Blackett was brilliant and handsome and a man of great social charm, and combining all this with great brilliance as a scientist&mdash;and I think he had a sense of his own comparative awkwardness and perhaps a sense of being physically unattractive compared to Blackett and so on.<ref>Charles Thorpe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BWek8zJ-U7IC Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2006) ISBN 0226798453, p. 39</ref>}}

{{cquote|Oppenheimer's feeling toward Blackett was one of intense admiration, combined perhaps with an intense jealousy&mdash;jealousy because of his feeling that Blackett was brilliant and handsome and a man of great social charm, and combining all this with great brilliance as a scientist&mdash;and I think he had a sense of his own comparative awkwardness and perhaps a sense of being physically unattractive compared to Blackett and so on.<ref>Charles Thorpe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BWek8zJ-U7IC Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2006) ISBN 0226798453, p. 39</ref>}}

In the fall of 1925, Oppenheimer left a "poisoned apple" laced with chemicals (possibly cyanide) from the laboratory on Blackett's desk.<ref>Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mpgs6qqNERwC Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius]'' (Harvard University Press, 2008) ISBN 0674028287, p. 142</ref> University authorities immediately informed Oppenheimer's parents (who were visiting Cambridge at the time) what had happened. According to a Pulitzer Prize-winning<ref>[http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2006-Biography-or-Autobiography The 2006 Pulitzer Prize Winners, Biography or Autobiography]</ref> biography of Oppenheimer:

In the fall of 1925, Oppenheimer left a "poisoned apple" laced with chemicals (possibly cyanide) from the laboratory on Blackett's desk.<ref>Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mpgs6qqNERwC Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius]'' (Harvard University Press, 2008) ISBN 0674028287, p. 142</ref> University authorities immediately informed Oppenheimer's parents (who were visiting Cambridge at the time) what had happened. According to a Pulitzer Prize-winning<ref>[http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2006-Biography-or-Autobiography The 2006 Pulitzer Prize Winners, Biography or Autobiography]</ref> biography of Oppenheimer:

{{cquote|His father frantically&mdash;and successfully&mdash;lobbied the university not to press criminal charges. After protracted negotiations, it was agreed that Robert would be put on probation and have regular sessions with a prominent Harley Street psychiatrist in London. This Freudian analyst diagnosed dementia praecox, a now archaic label for symptoms associated with schizophrenia. He concluded that Oppenheimer was a hopeless case and that "further analysis would do more harm than good".<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 46</ref>}}

{{cquote|His father frantically&mdash;and successfully&mdash;lobbied the university not to press criminal charges. After protracted negotiations, it was agreed that Robert would be put on probation and have regular sessions with a prominent Harley Street psychiatrist in London. This Freudian analyst diagnosed ''dementia praecox'', a now archaic label for symptoms associated with schizophrenia. He concluded that Oppenheimer was a hopeless case and that "further analysis would do more harm than good".<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 46</ref>}}

Oppenheimer went to Paris for a rest. His boyhood friend Francis Fergusson visited him there, and mentioned that he had become engaged. For the second time, Oppenheimer committed an apparent attempted murder:

Oppenheimer went to Paris for a rest. His boyhood friend Francis Fergusson visited him there, and mentioned that he had become engaged. For the second time, Oppenheimer committed an apparent attempted murder:

{{cquote|"I leaned over to pick up a book," Fergusson recalled, "and he jumped on me from behind with a trunk strap and wound it around my neck. I was quite scared for a little while. We must have made some noise. And then I managed to pull aside and he fell on the ground weeping."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 47</ref>}}

{{cquote|"I leaned over to pick up a book," Fergusson recalled, "and he jumped on me from behind with a trunk strap and wound it around my neck. I was quite scared for a little while. We must have made some noise. And then I managed to pull aside and he fell on the ground weeping."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 47</ref>}}

In 1926, Oppenheimer left Cambridge for the University of Göttingen in Germany. He developed a reputation for obnoxiousness, once chiding a graduate student couple for what he called their "peasant" ways in not being able to afford a baby-sitter.<ref>David Bodanis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MmjreCHCq_gC E=mc2: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation]'' (Random House, Inc., 2001) ISBN 0385258917, p. 147</ref> He had a habit of interrupting others (including his professor) and commandeering the blackboard; the future [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1963/mayer.html Nobel Prize-winner] Maria Göppart once presented Oppenheimer's faculty adviser, Max Born, with a petition threatening a boycott of his seminar unless the "child prodigy" were reigned in.<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 60</ref> Oppenheimer obtained a Ph.D. in physics in 1927, then obtained a National Research Council fellowship funded by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]].<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 68</ref> He did post-doctoral work at Harvard, then the California Institute of Technology, finally taking a position as an associate professor of physics at the [[University of California at Berkeley]].

In 1926, Oppenheimer left Cambridge for the University of Göttingen in Germany. He developed a reputation for obnoxiousness, once chiding a graduate student couple for what he called their "peasant" ways in not being able to afford a babysitter.<ref>David Bodanis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MmjreCHCq_gC E=mc2: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation]'' (Random House, Inc., 2001) ISBN 0385258917, p. 147</ref> He had a habit of interrupting others (including his professor) and commandeering the blackboard; the future [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1963/mayer.html Nobel Prize-winner] Maria Göppart once presented Oppenheimer's faculty adviser, [[Max Born]], with a petition threatening a boycott of his seminar unless the "child prodigy" were reigned in.<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 60</ref> Oppenheimer obtained a Ph.D. in physics in 1927, then obtained a National Research Council fellowship funded by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]].<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 68</ref> He did post-doctoral work at Harvard, then the California Institute of Technology, finally taking a position as an associate professor of physics at the [[University of California at Berkeley]].

== Scientific contributions ==

== Scientific contributions ==

Oppenheimer worked with other scientists such as [[Hans Bethe]], [[Niels Bohr]], [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Richard Feynman]], [[Willard Libby]], and [[Eugene Wigner]], who won Nobel prizes, although Oppenheimer never did.<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 90</ref> Oppenheimer's best-known scientific contribution was to suggest a limit to the size of [[neutron star]]s; larger neutron stars would collapse into [[black holes]] according to the [[theory of relativity]]. But Oppenheimer is best known not for any scientific contribution, but for his managerial role as scientific director of the [[Manhattan Project]], under the supervision of project director Gen. Leslie Groves. His moment of greatest [[insight]] was when his subordinates came to him with the notion of explosive lensing. At that moment, he wheeled around the entire project toward that goal and thereby achieved the device that detonated over Nagasaki at the altitude of maximum throw weight, maximizing the damage despite the adverse weather conditions.

Oppenheimer worked with other scientists such as [[Hans Bethe]], [[Niels Bohr]], [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Richard Feynman]], [[Willard Libby]], and [[Eugene Wigner]], all who won Nobel prizes while Oppenheimer never earned or received one.<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 90</ref> Oppenheimer's best-known scientific contribution was to suggest a limit to the size of [[neutron star]]s; larger neutron stars would collapse into [[black holes]] according to the [[theory of relativity]]. But Oppenheimer is best known not for any scientific contribution, but for his managerial role as scientific director of the [[Manhattan Project]], under the supervision of project director [[Leslie Groves|Gen. Leslie Groves]]. His moment of greatest [[insight]] was when his subordinates came to him with the notion of explosive lensing. At that moment, he wheeled around the entire project toward that goal and thereby achieved the device that detonated over [[Nagasaki]] at the altitude of maximum throw weight, maximizing the damage despite the adverse weather conditions.

== Personal life and Communist affiliation ==

== Personal life and Communist affiliation ==

At Caltech, Oppenheimer had befriended Linus Pauling, and wrote him poems Pauling found "troubling," which included allusions to pederasty. Pauling broke off the friendship after Oppenheimer made a pass at his wife, Ava Helen Pauling, who told her husband, "I think he was in love with you."<ref>Thomas Hager, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FNXaAAAAMAAJ Force of nature: the life of Linus Pauling]'' (Simon & Schuster, 1995) ISBN 0684809095, pp. 150-152</ref> At Berkeley, rumors circulated of an affair between Oppenheimer and a homosexual student who lived with him,<ref>Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBNpeh2BaG4C In the shadow of the bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the moral responsibility of the scientist]'' (Princeton University Press, 2000) ISBN 0691049890, p. 203, n. 69. Oppenheimer's colleague Abrahaim Pais wrote that "I was convinced that strong latent homosexuality was an important ingredient in Robert's emotional makeup." (Abraham Pais, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XrYrAAAAYAAJ A tale of two continents: a physicist's life in a turbulent world]'' [Oxford University Press, 1997] ISBN 0198501994, p. 241) One biographer comments, "it seems fairly likely that sexual ambivalence was one aspect of Oppenheimer's youthful problems of identity." Charles Thorpe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BWek8zJ-U7IC Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2006) ISBN 0226798453, p. 51</ref> but in 1936 he began an affair with Jean Tatlock, a medical student at Stanford<ref>Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 236</ref> and daughter of Oppenheimer's fellow Berkeley professor John S.P. Tatlock,<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 109</ref> a contributor to ''[[Nation (magazine)|The Nation]]''.<ref>[http://www.thenation.com/authors/john-s-p-tatlock Author Bios: John S.P. Tatlock, thenation.com]</ref> Then, In 1939, Oppenheimer began an affair with [http://foia.fbi.gov/oppenheimer_katherine/oppenheimer_katherine_part01.pdf Katherine "Kitty" Puening Dallet Harrison]. After moving in with Oppenheimer and becoming pregnant,<ref>David Cassidy, ''J. Robert Oppenheimer and the American Century'' (Pi Press: 2004) ISBN 0-13-147996-2, pp. 186-187</ref> Kitty abandoned her third husband,<ref>Richard Rhodes, "[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/15/books/review/15RHODESL.html Nuclear Options]," ''The New York Times'', May 15, 2005</ref> a cancer researcher at Caltech,<ref>[[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: 214</ref> to marry Oppenheimer in 1940, though he continued his affair with Tatlock until at least June 1943. During [[World War II]], while married to Kitty, Oppenheimer began an affair with another married woman, Ruth Tolman, the wife of Caltech physicist Richard Tolman, whom Oppenheimer testified was "a very close and dear friend of mine."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 363</ref> The affair "devastated Richard Tolman,"<ref>C. Mott Woolley, "[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Front_Page/HE10Aa02.html The tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer]," ''Asia Times'', May 10, 2006</ref> who died, according to [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1939/lawrence.html Nobel Prize-winning] physicist Ernest Lawrence, "of a broken heart."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 365</ref> Kitty took to drinking.<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 407-409</ref>

At Caltech, Oppenheimer had befriended [[Linus Pauling]], and wrote him poems Pauling found "troubling," which included allusions to pederasty. Pauling broke off the friendship after Oppenheimer made a pass at his wife, Ava Helen Pauling, who told her husband, "I think he was in love with you."<ref>Thomas Hager, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FNXaAAAAMAAJ Force of nature: the life of Linus Pauling]'' (Simon & Schuster, 1995) ISBN 0684809095, pp. 150-152</ref> At Berkeley, rumors circulated of an affair between Oppenheimer and a homosexual student who lived with him,<ref>Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBNpeh2BaG4C In the shadow of the bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the moral responsibility of the scientist]'' (Princeton University Press, 2000) ISBN 0691049890, p. 203, n. 69. Oppenheimer's colleague Abraham Pais wrote that "I was convinced that strong latent homosexuality was an important ingredient in Robert's emotional makeup." (Abraham Pais, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XrYrAAAAYAAJ A tale of two continents: a physicist's life in a turbulent world]'' [Oxford University Press, 1997] ISBN 0198501994, p. 241) One biographer comments, "it seems fairly likely that sexual ambivalence was one aspect of Oppenheimer's youthful problems of identity." Charles Thorpe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BWek8zJ-U7IC Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2006) ISBN 0226798453, p. 51</ref> but in 1936 he began an affair with Jean Tatlock, a medical student at Stanford<ref>Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 236</ref> and daughter of Oppenheimer's fellow Berkeley professor John S.P. Tatlock,<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 109</ref> a contributor to ''[[Nation (magazine)|The Nation]]''.<ref>[http://www.thenation.com/authors/john-s-p-tatlock Author Bios: John S.P. Tatlock, thenation.com]</ref> Then, In 1939, Oppenheimer began an affair with [http://foia.fbi.gov/oppenheimer_katherine/oppenheimer_katherine_part01.pdf Katherine "Kitty" Puening Dallet Harrison]. After moving in with Oppenheimer and becoming pregnant,<ref>David Cassidy, ''J. Robert Oppenheimer and the American Century'' (Pi Press: 2004) ISBN 0-13-147996-2, pp. 186-187</ref> Kitty abandoned her third husband,<ref>Richard Rhodes, "[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/15/books/review/15RHODESL.html Nuclear Options]," ''The New York Times'', May 15, 2005</ref> a cancer researcher at Caltech,<ref>[[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: 214</ref> to marry Oppenheimer in 1940, though he continued his affair with Tatlock until at least June 1943. During [[World War II]], while married to Kitty, Oppenheimer began an affair with another married woman, Ruth Tolman, the wife of Caltech physicist Richard Tolman, whom Oppenheimer testified was "a very close and dear friend of mine."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 363</ref> The affair "devastated Richard Tolman,"<ref>C. Mott Woolley, "[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Front_Page/HE10Aa02.html The tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer]," ''Asia Times'', May 10, 2006</ref> who died, according to [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1939/lawrence.html Nobel Prize-winning] physicist Ernest Lawrence, "of a broken heart."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 365</ref> Kitty took to drinking.<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 407-409</ref>

Oppenheimer had a history of pro-Communist associations, starting at Caltech with Pauling, a "long-serving [[USSR|Soviet]] tool."<ref>Stephen Schwartz, "[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=23794 Communists and Islamic Extremists - Then and Now]," FrontPageMagazine.com, July 8, 2002. A 1951 investigation by HUAC, then chaired by Democrat John Stephens Wood, concluded that Pauling was "primarily engrossed in placing his scientific attainments at the service of a host of organizations which have in common their complete subservience to the Communist Party, USA, and the Soviet Union. Professor Pauling has not deviated a hair's breadth from this pattern of loyalty to the Communist cause since 1946." (House Committee on Un-American Activities, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/14/items/reportoncommunis00unit/reportoncommunis00unit_bw.pdf Report on the Communist "Peace" Offensive, the Attempt to Disarm and Defeat America]'' [Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1951], p. 86) In 1970, the Soviet government would reward Pauling for his long service [http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1970n.13.html with the Lenin prize].</ref> Later, at Berkeley, Oppenheimer's mistress Tatlock was a [[Communist]],<ref>[[#refPK06|Pais, Crease 2006]]: 36</ref> as was his wife Kitty,<ref>[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 122. Cf. [[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 270</ref> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/alba_032/bioghist.html widow of Communist political commissar Joe Dallet], killed in the [[Spanish Civil War]]<ref>[http://foia.fbi.gov/filelink.html?file=/oppenheimer_katherine/oppenheimer_katherine_part01.pdf Hoover to Lansdale], May 23, 1944 (FBI file: Katherine Oppenheimer, PDF p. 2)</ref> (perhaps by his Soviet superiors, or fragged by his own men, according to various rumors).<ref>William Herrick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vKWZ9Vo69GwC Jumping the Line: The Adventures and Misadventures of an American Radical]'' (AK Press, 2001) ISBN 1902593421, p. 237</ref> In January 1944, Tatlock would be found drowned in her bathtub, in circumstances termed "suspicious."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 232, 253.</ref> Some writers suspect Soviet involvement in Tatlock's death. Stephen Schwartz mentions "Khyron"—the Cyrillic transliteration of Chyron, ferryman of the dead in ancient Greek mythology<ref>Stephen Schwartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PvoUAAAAYAAJ From West To East: California and the Making of the American Mind]'' (Free Press, 1998) ISBN 0684831341, p. 380. Cf. Cornell Simpson, ''[https://www.amazon.com/death-James-Forrestal-Cornell-Simpson/dp/B0006BOU86 The Death of James Forrestal]'' (Western Islands, 1966. ASIN B0006BOU86)</ref>—which was also [[Grigory Kheifets|Kheifets]]' [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Venona-San%20Francisco-KGB.pdf code name].

Oppenheimer had a history of pro-Communist associations, starting at Caltech with Pauling, a "long-serving [[USSR|Soviet]] tool."<ref>Stephen Schwartz, "[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=23794 Communists and Islamic Extremists - Then and Now]," FrontPageMagazine.com, July 8, 2002. A 1951 investigation by HUAC, then chaired by Democrat John Stephens Wood, concluded that Pauling was "primarily engrossed in placing his scientific attainments at the service of a host of organizations which have in common their complete subservience to the Communist Party, USA, and the Soviet Union. Professor Pauling has not deviated a hair's breadth from this pattern of loyalty to the Communist cause since 1946." (House Committee on Un-American Activities, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/14/items/reportoncommunis00unit/reportoncommunis00unit_bw.pdf Report on the Communist "Peace" Offensive, the Attempt to Disarm and Defeat America]'' [Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1951], p. 86) In 1970, the Soviet government would reward Pauling for his long service [http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1970n.13.html with the Lenin prize].</ref> Later, at Berkeley, Oppenheimer's mistress Tatlock was a [[Communist]],<ref>[[#refPK06|Pais, Crease 2006]]: 36</ref> as was his wife Kitty,<ref>[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 122. Cf. [[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 270</ref> [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/alba_032/bioghist.html widow of Communist political commissar Joe Dallet], killed in the [[Spanish Civil War]]<ref>[http://foia.fbi.gov/filelink.html?file=/oppenheimer_katherine/oppenheimer_katherine_part01.pdf Hoover to Lansdale], May 23, 1944 (FBI file: Katherine Oppenheimer, PDF p. 2)</ref> (perhaps by his Soviet superiors, or fragged by his own men, according to various rumors).<ref>William Herrick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vKWZ9Vo69GwC Jumping the Line: The Adventures and Misadventures of an American Radical]'' (AK Press, 2001) ISBN 1902593421, p. 237</ref> In January 1944, Tatlock would be found drowned in her bathtub, in circumstances termed "suspicious."<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 232, 253.</ref> Some writers suspect Soviet involvement in Tatlock's death. Stephen Schwartz mentions "Khyron"—the Cyrillic transliteration of Chyron, ferryman of the dead in ancient Greek mythology<ref>Stephen Schwartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PvoUAAAAYAAJ From West To East: California and the Making of the American Mind]'' (Free Press, 1998) ISBN 0684831341, p. 380. Cf. Cornell Simpson, ''[https://www.amazon.com/death-James-Forrestal-Cornell-Simpson/dp/B0006BOU86 The Death of James Forrestal]'' (Western Islands, 1966. ASIN B0006BOU86)</ref>—which was also [[Grigory Kheifets|Kheifets]]' [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Venona-San%20Francisco-KGB.pdf code name].

Oppenheimer confessed, "I was associated with the Communist movement,"<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 110 (PDF 120)</ref> and admitted having subscribed to the Communist Party organ ''People's World''<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 8 (PDF 18)</ref> "for several years."<ref>According to the FBI, he was subscribed as early as 1938. ([[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 [PDF 236]) Asked if his subscription expired after he joined the Manhattan Project, Oppenheimer said: "Since I don't know when it was, I can't answer that question." He admitted, "I think I paid for it" and "I don't believe I canceled the subscription." [[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 157 (PDF 167)</ref> Throughout the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]], when many other formerly stalwart Communists dropped out of the movement in disgust, Oppenheimer was, by his own admission, active in a number of [[Communist front]]s. He admitted having been a member of the western council of the Consumers Union<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9 (PDF 19)</ref> (according to the FBI, he actually became a member of the Board of Counselors of this organization),<ref>[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF 236)</ref> which was designated as subversive by the [[HUAC|Dies committee]] in 1939,<ref>Paul Gray, Tom Curry and Jane Van Tessel, "[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,982525,00.html Evaluating the Buyer's Bible]," ''Time'', February 20, 1995</ref> during the pact. In addition, from 1939 until at least 1942<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 158 (PDF 168)</ref> (throughout the duration of the pact), admitted Oppenheimer, he was a member of the American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom, which was identified by [[HUAC]] as a Communist front in 1942 and by a special subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations as subversive and un-American the following year.<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 3 (PDF 13)</ref> Oppenheimer claimed not to remember sponsoring the American Friends of the Chinese People<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9 (PDF 19)</ref> (identified as a Communist front by HUAC in 1944),<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 3 (PDF 13)</ref> but the organization listed him as a sponsor<ref>Senate Fact-Finding Committee on Un-American Activities, California Legislature, [http://ia331325.us.archive.org/3/items/reportofsenatefa00calirich/reportofsenatefa00calirich.pdf Un-American Activities in California, 1948: Communist Front Organizations, Fourth Report] (Sacramento, 1948), p. 144 (PDF p. 154)</ref> in 1940,<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 124</ref> during the pact.

Oppenheimer confessed, "I was associated with the Communist movement,"<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 110 (PDF 120)</ref> and admitted having subscribed to the Communist Party organ ''People's World''<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 8 (PDF 18)</ref> "for several years."<ref>According to the FBI, he was subscribed as early as 1938. ([[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 [PDF 236]) Asked if his subscription expired after he joined the Manhattan Project, Oppenheimer said: "Since I don't know when it was, I can't answer that question." He admitted, "I think I paid for it" and "I don't believe I canceled the subscription." [[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 157 (PDF 167)</ref> Throughout the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]], when many other formerly stalwart Communists dropped out of the movement in disgust, Oppenheimer was, by his own admission, active in a number of [[Communist front]]s. He admitted having been a member of the western council of the Consumers Union<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9 (PDF 19)</ref> (according to the FBI, he actually became a member of the Board of Counselors of this organization),<ref>[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF 236)</ref> which was designated as subversive by the [[HUAC|Dies committee]] in 1939,<ref>Paul Gray, Tom Curry and Jane Van Tessel, "[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,982525,00.html Evaluating the Buyer's Bible]," ''Time'', February 20, 1995</ref> during the pact. In addition, from 1939 until at least 1942<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 158 (PDF 168)</ref> (throughout the duration of the pact), admitted Oppenheimer, he was a member of the American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom, which was identified by [[HUAC]] as a Communist front in 1942 and by a special subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations as subversive and un-American the following year.<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 3 (PDF 13)</ref> Oppenheimer claimed not to remember sponsoring the American Friends of the Chinese People<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9 (PDF 19)</ref> (identified as a Communist front by HUAC in 1944),<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 3 (PDF 13)</ref> but the organization listed him as a sponsor<ref>Senate Fact-Finding Committee on Un-American Activities, California Legislature, [http://ia331325.us.archive.org/3/items/reportofsenatefa00calirich/reportofsenatefa00calirich.pdf Un-American Activities in California, 1948: Communist Front Organizations, Fourth Report] (Sacramento, 1948), p. 144 (PDF p. 154)</ref> in 1940,<ref>[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 124</ref> during the pact.

In addition, according to the FBI, Oppenheimer reportedly co-founded the Berkeley Conference for Civic Betterment (identified by the FBI as a "[[Communist front|front group]]"); was "a member of the Executive Committee of the American Civil Liberties Union, a Communist Party front group [in 1939, during the pact]";<ref>Under threat of being listed by HUAC in the wake of the Nazi-Soviet pact, the ACLU purged any "member of any political organization which supports totalitarian dictatorship in any country, or who by his public declaration and connections indicates his support of [http://content.cdlib.org/view?query=&docId=kt396n99b3&chunk.id=d0e2699&toc.depth=1&toc.id=0&brand=oac&x=0&y=0 such a principle]" (including future CPUSA Chairman Elizabeth Gurley Flynn) from its Executive Committee in 1940, although its continued front activity caused it to be listed as a Communist front by a joint committee of the California Legislature in 1943: "The American Civil Liberties Union may be definitely classed as a Communist front or 'transmission belt' organization." [http://ia331324.us.archive.org/3/items/reportofsenatefa00calirich/reportofsenatefa00calirich.pdf Communist Front Organizations], Fourth Report of the Senate Fact-Finding Committee On Un-American Activities, California Legislature, 1948, p. 107 (PDF p. 117)</ref> a member of the Medical Bureau to Aid Spanish Democracy<ref>Oppenheimer was listed as a donor to this organization in ''People's World'', January 29, 1938, cited in [[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF p. 236)</ref> (identified by [[HUAC]] in 1944 as one in a "series of Communist enterprises");<ref>Committee on Un-American Activities, Annual Report, House Report 2233, June 7, 1946, p. 27; Cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 55 (PDF p. 71)</ref> a member of the National Emergency Conference for Democratic Rights (identified as subversive and un-American by a special subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations in 1943, and as a Communist front by HUAC the following year);<ref>Special Subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations, Report, April 21, 1943, p. 3; Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House Report 1311 on the CIO Political Action Committee, March 29, 1944, VV- 48 and 102; both cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 62 (PDF p. 78)</ref> and a donor to the Spanish Aid Committee,<ref>[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF 236)</ref> identified as a Communist front by HUAC in 1944 and as Communist by [[Harry Truman|Truman]] administration [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]] in 1949.<ref>Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House Report 1311 on the CIO Political Action Committee, March 29, 1944, pp. 82, 140, and 180; Attorney General Tom Clark, letter to Loyalty Review Board, released April 27, 1949; both cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 69 (PDF p. 85)</ref>

In addition, according to the FBI, Oppenheimer reportedly co-founded the Berkeley Conference for Civic Betterment (identified by the FBI as a "[[Communist front|front group]]"); was "a member of the Executive Committee of the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], a Communist Party front group [in 1939, during the pact]";<ref>Under threat of being listed by HUAC in the wake of the Nazi-Soviet pact, the ACLU purged any "member of any political organization which supports totalitarian dictatorship in any country, or who by his public declaration and connections indicates his support of [http://content.cdlib.org/view?query=&docId=kt396n99b3&chunk.id=d0e2699&toc.depth=1&toc.id=0&brand=oac&x=0&y=0 such a principle]" (including future CPUSA Chairman Elizabeth Gurley Flynn) from its Executive Committee in 1940, although its continued front activity caused it to be listed as a Communist front by a joint committee of the California Legislature in 1943: "The American Civil Liberties Union may be definitely classed as a Communist front or 'transmission belt' organization." [http://ia331324.us.archive.org/3/items/reportofsenatefa00calirich/reportofsenatefa00calirich.pdf Communist Front Organizations], Fourth Report of the Senate Fact-Finding Committee On Un-American Activities, California Legislature, 1948, p. 107 (PDF p. 117)</ref> a member of the Medical Bureau to Aid Spanish Democracy<ref>Oppenheimer was listed as a donor to this organization in ''People's World'', January 29, 1938, cited in [[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF p. 236)</ref> (identified by [[HUAC]] in 1944 as one in a "series of Communist enterprises");<ref>Committee on Un-American Activities, Annual Report, House Report 2233, June 7, 1946, p. 27; Cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 55 (PDF p. 71)</ref> a member of the National Emergency Conference for Democratic Rights (identified as subversive and un-American by a special subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations in 1943, and as a Communist front by HUAC the following year);<ref>Special Subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations, Report, April 21, 1943, p. 3; Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House Report 1311 on the CIO Political Action Committee, March 29, 1944, VV- 48 and 102; both cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 62 (PDF p. 78)</ref> and a donor to the Spanish Aid Committee,<ref>[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF 236)</ref> identified as a Communist front by HUAC in 1944 and as Communist by [[Harry Truman|Truman]] administration [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]] in 1949.<ref>Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House Report 1311 on the CIO Political Action Committee, March 29, 1944, pp. 82, 140, and 180; Attorney General Tom Clark, letter to Loyalty Review Board, released April 27, 1949; both cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 69 (PDF p. 85)</ref>

===Communist Party membership===

===Communist Party membership===

But Oppenheimer “was not simply a casual Popular Front liberal who ignorantly bumped up against the [[CPUSA]] in some of the areas in which it operated," according to John Earl Haynes, a Soviet espionage expert in the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress:<ref>Patricia Villamil, "2009-2010 Kluge Staff Fellow," [http://www.loc.gov/loc/kluge/newsletters/KlugeNewsletteFall2009.pdf ''Newsletter'', the John W. Kluge Center at the Library of Congress, Vol. 2, No. 2 (November 2009)], p. 6</ref> "He was, in fact, a concealed member of the CPUSA in the late 1930s," write Haynes, Emory University Professor Harvey Klehr and ex-[[KGB]] agent Alexander Vassiliev.<ref>[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 58</ref> “Robert Oppenheimer was a member of a so-called closed unit of the Communist Party's professional section in Berkeley, from 1938 to 1942,” agrees Gregg Herken, a former senior Historian at the Smithsonian Institution.<ref>Gregg Herken, [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/documents.html Documents], Brotherhood of the Bomb</ref> Stanford University historian Barton Bernstein, an expert on Oppenheimer, concurs that "it seems to me far more likely than not from the amalgam of evidence that Oppenheimer was a member, at least covert, for a few years."<ref>Charles Burress, "[http://articles.sfgate.com/2004-04-23/news/17423704_1_communist-party-oppenheimer-uc-berkeley The Oppenheimer Riddle: New evidence of Communist membership debated by scholars of Berkeley scientist]," ''The San Francisco Chronicle'', April 23, 2004</ref>

But Oppenheimer “was not simply a casual [[Popular Front]] liberal who ignorantly bumped up against the [[CPUSA]] in some of the areas in which it operated," according to John Earl Haynes, a Soviet espionage expert in the Manuscript Division of the [[Library of Congress]]:<ref>Patricia Villamil, "2009-2010 Kluge Staff Fellow," [http://www.loc.gov/loc/kluge/newsletters/KlugeNewsletteFall2009.pdf ''Newsletter'', the John W. Kluge Center at the Library of Congress, Vol. 2, No. 2 (November 2009)], p. 6</ref> "He was, in fact, a concealed member of the CPUSA in the late 1930s," wrote Haynes, [[Emory University]] Professor Harvey Klehr and ex-[[KGB]] agent [[Alexander Vassiliev]].<ref>[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 58</ref> “Robert Oppenheimer was a member of a so-called closed unit of the Communist Party's professional section in Berkeley, from 1938 to 1942,” agrees Gregg Herken, a former senior Historian at the [[Smithsonian Institution]].<ref>Gregg Herken, [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/documents.html Documents], Brotherhood of the Bomb</ref> Stanford University historian Barton Bernstein, an expert on Oppenheimer, concurs that "it seems to me far more likely than not from the amalgam of evidence that Oppenheimer was a member, at least covert, for a few years."<ref>Charles Burress, "[http://articles.sfgate.com/2004-04-23/news/17423704_1_communist-party-oppenheimer-uc-berkeley The Oppenheimer Riddle: New evidence of Communist membership debated by scholars of Berkeley scientist]," ''The San Francisco Chronicle'', April 23, 2004</ref>

====Berkeley cell====

====Berkeley cell====

====Soviet intelligence====

====Soviet intelligence====

If Oppenheimer was not a Communist, he not only convinced the Communist Party he was, he convinced Soviet intelligence itself. A 1944 report by [[NKVD]] [[San Francisco]] ''[[rezident]]'' (station chief) [[Grigory Kheifetz]]<ref>Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'' (Fort George G. Meade, Md.: National Security Agency, Center for Cryptologic History, 2001), p. 41</ref> states: “According to 'Uncle' ([[Isaac Folkoff]]),<ref>[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 56</ref> both brothers [Robert and Frank Oppenheimer] were associated with the fellowcountrymen,"<ref>Alexandr Vassiliev, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.1_Translated1.pdf White Notebook #1] (tr. Steve Shabad), p. 138</ref> [[NKVD]] code name for the Communist Party.<ref>[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 36</ref>  That year, NKVD agents [[Gaik Ovakimian]] and Andrei Graur reported to NKVD chief Boris Merkulov, identifying the code name "Chester" as "Robert Oppenheimer, b. 1906, an Amer. Jew, secret member of the fellowcountryman org., a professor at the U. of California, works on ‘En-s’,"<ref>Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #1 ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No._1_Original.pdf Orig.]), PDF p. 6; ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.1_Translated.pdf Trans].), p. 10. Cf. [[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 45</ref> i.e., 'Enormoz,' Soviet code name for the Manhattan Project.<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 87</ref> Merkulov, reporting in turn to Soviet Commissar for Internal Affairs [[Lavrenty Beria]], identified “one of the leaders of scientific work on uranium in the USA, Professor R. Oppenheimer,” as “an unlisted [''nglastny'']<ref>Jerrold L. Schecter and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFoAAAAMAAJ Sacred secrets: how Soviet intelligence operations changed American history]'' (Brassey's, 2002) ISBN 1574883275, p. 50</ref> member of the apparatus of Comrade [[Earl Browder|Browder]],” General Secretary of the [[CPUSA]].<ref>[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/111512 Merkulov to Beria, 2 October 1944], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</ref> Oppenheimer is also mentioned as an unlisted member of the CPUSA in a January 7, 1946, Soviet intelligence document from the Russian Presidential Archives and Ministry of Atomic Energy.<ref>"The State of Work in the Utilization of Atomic Energy in Capitalist Countries," in "Atomic Project in the USSR, Volume II, 1938-54" (Moscow: Ministry of Atomic Energy of Russia, 2000). See Jerrold and Leona Schechter, "[http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-diplo&month=0210&week=c&msg=VJUrY5l1Cc7MVWpd5C6O1g&user=&pw= Clarification of Steven Aftergood's posting of August 30, 2002]," H-Net: Humanities and Social Sciences Online, October 14, 2002</ref>

If Oppenheimer was not a Communist, he not only convinced the Communist Party he was, he convinced Soviet intelligence itself. A 1944 report by [[NKVD]] [[San Francisco]] ''[[rezident]]'' (station chief) [[Grigory Kheifetz]]<ref>Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'' (Fort George G. Meade, Md.: National Security Agency, Center for Cryptologic History, 2001), p. 41</ref> states: “According to 'Uncle' ([[Isaac Folkoff]]),<ref>[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 56</ref> both brothers [Robert and Frank Oppenheimer] were associated with the fellowcountrymen,"<ref>Alexandr Vassiliev, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.1_Translated1.pdf White Notebook #1] (tr. Steve Shabad), p. 138</ref> [[NKVD]] code name for the Communist Party.<ref>[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 36</ref>  That year, NKVD agents [[Gaik Ovakimian]] and Andrei Graur reported to NKVD chief Boris Merkulov, identifying the code name "Chester" as "Robert Oppenheimer, b. 1906, an Amer. Jew, secret member of the fellow countryman org., a professor at the U. of California, works on ‘En-s’,"<ref>Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #1 ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No._1_Original.pdf Orig.]), PDF p. 6; ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.1_Translated.pdf Trans].), p. 10. Cf. [[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 45</ref> i.e., '[[Enormoz]],' Soviet code name for the Manhattan Project.<ref>[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 87</ref> Merkulov, reporting in turn to Soviet Commissar for Internal Affairs [[Lavrenty Beria]], identified “one of the leaders of scientific work on uranium in the USA, Professor R. Oppenheimer,” as “an unlisted [''nglastny'']<ref>Jerrold L. Schecter and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFoAAAAMAAJ Sacred secrets: how Soviet intelligence operations changed American history]'' (Brassey's, 2002) ISBN 1574883275, p. 50</ref> member of the apparatus of Comrade [[Earl Browder|Browder]],” General Secretary of the [[CPUSA]].<ref>[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/111512 Merkulov to Beria, 2 October 1944], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</ref> Oppenheimer is also mentioned as an unlisted member of the CPUSA in a January 7, 1946, Soviet intelligence document from the Russian Presidential Archives and Ministry of Atomic Energy.<ref>"The State of Work in the Utilization of Atomic Energy in Capitalist Countries," in "Atomic Project in the USSR, Volume II, 1938-54" (Moscow: Ministry of Atomic Energy of Russia, 2000). See Jerrold and Leona Schechter, "[http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-diplo&month=0210&week=c&msg=VJUrY5l1Cc7MVWpd5C6O1g&user=&pw= Clarification of Steven Aftergood's posting of August 30, 2002]," H-Net: Humanities and Social Sciences Online, October 14, 2002</ref>

====Cover-up====

====Cover-up====

According to [[Grigory Kheifetz|Kheifetz]], "due to their special military work, the connection with them [Robert and Frank Oppenheimer] was suspended.”<ref>Alexandr Vassiliev, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.1_Translated1.pdf White Notebook #1] (tr. Steve Shabad), p. 138</ref> Ovakimian and Graur reported to Merkulov: “In view of the special significance and importance of the work he does... the fellowcountryman organization received orders from its center to break off relations with ‘Ch.’ [i.e., "Chester," Oppenheimer's code name] to avoid his exposure.”<ref>[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 45</ref> Merkulov summarized:

According to [[Grigory Kheifetz|Kheifetz]], "due to their special military work, the connection with them [Robert and Frank Oppenheimer] was suspended.”<ref>Alexandr Vassiliev, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.1_Translated1.pdf White Notebook #1] (tr. Steve Shabad), p. 138</ref> Ovakimian and Graur reported to Merkulov: “In view of the special significance and importance of the work he does... the fellowcountryman organization received orders from its center to break off relations with ‘Ch.’ [i.e., "Chester," Oppenheimer's code name] to avoid his exposure.”<ref>[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 45</ref> Merkulov summarized:

{{cquote|Due to complications of the operational situation in the USA, dissolution of the [[Comintern]]<ref>In 1943, Stalin officially dissolved the [[Comintern]] ([http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm Dissolution of the Communist International], Marxists Internet Archive), forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States. ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.publications&doc_id=43900&group_id=13349 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars). The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern ([http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989), which included “control over the CPUSA,” (Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507, p. 48)&mdash;gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct NKVD control. [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface], Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response,  1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)</ref> and explanations of Comrades Zarubin and Kheifets on the Mironov affair<ref>In 1943, Lt. Col. Vasili Mironov, an NKVD officer in the Washington, DC ''rezidentura'', sent an [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2005/august/history_082605 unsigned letter] to [[J. Edgar Hoover]], exposing the intelligence activities of the [[Vasily Zarubin|Zarubin]]s and [[Grigory Kheifets|Kheifets]].</ref> it is expedient to immediately sever contacts of leaders and activists of the American Communist Party with scientists and specialists engaged in work on uranium.<ref>[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.document&identifier=5034E2FB-96B6-175C-967BCF8290DD3AD9&sort=Collection&item=Intelligence%20Operations%20in%20the%20Cold%20War Merkulov to Beria, 2 October 1944], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</ref>}}

{{cquote|Due to complications of the operational situation in the USA, dissolution of the [[Comintern]]<ref>In 1943, Stalin officially dissolved the [[Comintern]] ([http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm Dissolution of the Communist International], Marxists Internet Archive), forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States. ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.publications&doc_id=43900&group_id=13349 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars). The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern ([http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989), which included “control over the CPUSA,” (Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507, p. 48)&mdash;gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct NKVD control. [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface], [[Robert Louis Benson]] and [[Michael Warner]], eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response,  1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)</ref> and explanations of Comrades Zarubin and Kheifets on the Mironov affair<ref>In 1943, Lt. Col. Vasili Mironov, an NKVD officer in the Washington, DC ''rezidentura'', sent an [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2005/august/history_082605 unsigned letter] to [[J. Edgar Hoover]], exposing the intelligence activities of the [[Vasily Zarubin|Zarubin]]s and [[Grigory Kheifets|Kheifets]].</ref> it is expedient to immediately sever contacts of leaders and activists of the American Communist Party with scientists and specialists engaged in work on uranium.<ref>[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.document&identifier=5034E2FB-96B6-175C-967BCF8290DD3AD9&sort=Collection&item=Intelligence%20Operations%20in%20the%20Cold%20War Merkulov to Beria, 2 October 1944], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</ref>}}

According to Sudoplatov, "My deputy, Leonid Eitingon, and I also instructed Kheifetz and Semyonov to turn over to our old moles all their confidential contacts with friendly sources around Oppenheimer in California."<ref>George J. Church, "[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980756,00.html Did Oppenheimer Really Help Moscow?]" ''Time'', Vol. 143, No. 21 (May 23, 1994), p. 68</ref> A 1945 Soviet code-message refers to instructions to “send GURON [‘Huron’]<ref>Huron was identified in the [[Gorsky memo]] in 1948 by [[Anatoly Gorsky]] (NKVD ''rezident'' in Washington in 1945) as Byron T. Darling, who would be fired from a post as associate professor of physics at Ohio State University in 1953 when he refused to answer a question about his Communist Party ties before HUAC.</ref> to CHICAGO to re-establish contact with VEKSEL....” The National Security Agency’s [[Venona project]] analysts identified VEKSEL as “Probably Dr. Julius Robert Oppenheimer.”<ref>[http://www.nsa.gov/venona/releases/21_Mar_1945_R1_p2.gif Venona 256 Moscow to New York], 21 March 1945</ref>

According to Sudoplatov, "My deputy, Leonid Eitingon, and I also instructed Kheifetz and Semyonov to turn over to our old moles all their confidential contacts with friendly sources around Oppenheimer in California."<ref>George J. Church, "[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980756,00.html Did Oppenheimer Really Help Moscow?]" ''Time'', Vol. 143, No. 21 (May 23, 1994), p. 68</ref> A 1945 Soviet code message refers to instructions to “send GURON [‘Huron’]<ref>Huron was identified in the [[Gorsky memo]] in 1948 by [[Anatoly Gorsky]] (NKVD ''rezident'' in Washington in 1945) as Byron T. Darling, who would be fired from a post as associate professor of physics at Ohio State University in 1953 when he refused to answer a question about his Communist Party ties before HUAC.</ref> to CHICAGO to re-establish contact with VEKSEL....” The National Security Agency’s [[Venona project]] analysts identified VEKSEL as “Probably Dr. Julius Robert Oppenheimer.”<ref>[http://www.nsa.gov/venona/releases/21_Mar_1945_R1_p2.gif Venona 256 Moscow to New York], 21 March 1945</ref>

== Espionage at Los Alamos ==

== Espionage at Los Alamos ==

In 1949, just before Lomanitz was to testify before HUAC, Oppenheimer met him on a sidewalk in Princeton, N.J., (where presumably "the FBI found it difficult to monitor his conversations"),<ref>"[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html THE ATOM: A Matter of Character]," ''Time'', June 14, 1954</ref> and discussed what he would say to the committee. Oppenheimer testified that the meeting was by chance, and that he only advised Lomanitz to tell the truth. But when he testified, Lomanitz refused on grounds of potential self-incrimination to answer whether or not he had been a Communist.<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 151 (PDF 161)</ref>

In 1949, just before Lomanitz was to testify before HUAC, Oppenheimer met him on a sidewalk in Princeton, N.J., (where presumably "the FBI found it difficult to monitor his conversations"),<ref>"[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html THE ATOM: A Matter of Character]," ''Time'', June 14, 1954</ref> and discussed what he would say to the committee. Oppenheimer testified that the meeting was by chance, and that he only advised Lomanitz to tell the truth. But when he testified, Lomanitz refused on grounds of potential self-incrimination to answer whether or not he had been a Communist.<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 151 (PDF 161)</ref>

Oppenheimer also testified that he knew "for a fact" by August 1943 that Weinberg was a Communist Party member<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 875 (PDF 887). Cf. [[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 245; [[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 111</ref> and had heard even at Berkeley that Weinberg had been a member of the Young Communist League.<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 194 (PDF 204)</ref> FBI surveillance recorded Weinberg, who had gotten into the Manhattan project using Oppenheimer as a reference, telling Nelson he had been a Communist Party member since 1938.<ref>[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 14 (PDF 16)</ref> Nelson warned Weinberg to burn his party membership book.<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 148</ref> In 1943, FBI surveillance recorded Weinberg ("[http://ia341038.us.archive.org/1/items/hearingsregardin194902unit/hearingsregardin194902unit_bw.pdf Scientist X]") reading to Nelson "what appeared to be a technical formula used in the Project," which Nelson copied down.<ref>[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 6 (PDF 8)</ref> Weinberg told Nelson he had to return the formula to the University of California Radiation Laboratories in the morning. Several days later Nelson met with Peter Ivanov (a [[GRU]] agent operating out of the Soviet consulate in San Francisco,<ref>[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]</ref> where [[Grigory Kheifetz|Kheifetz]] was undercover as vice consul),<ref>[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?doc_id=43900&fuseaction=topics.publications&group_id=13349&topic_id=1409 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</ref> and gave him a package.<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 325</ref> A few days later, "Zubilin" ([[Vasily Zarubin]], NKVD station chief in the U.S. from 1941 to 1944) was transferred from the Soviet Embassy in Washington to the San Francisco consulate. Shortly thereafter, Zubilin gave Nelson ten bills of unknown denominations.<ref>Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 81st Cong., 1st sess., [http://ia311304.us.archive.org/1/items/hearingsregarding1949unit/hearingsregarding1949unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Steve Nelson] (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949), pp. VIII-IX (PDF pp. 12-13)</ref>

Oppenheimer also testified that he knew "for a fact" by August 1943 that Weinberg was a Communist Party member<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 875 (PDF 887). Cf. [[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 245; [[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 111</ref> and had heard even at Berkeley that Weinberg had been a member of the Young Communist League.<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 194 (PDF 204)</ref> FBI surveillance recorded Weinberg, who had gotten into the [[Manhattan Project]] using Oppenheimer as a reference, telling Nelson he had been a Communist Party member since 1938.<ref>[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 14 (PDF 16)</ref> Nelson warned Weinberg to burn his party membership book.<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 148</ref> In 1943, FBI surveillance recorded Weinberg ("[http://ia341038.us.archive.org/1/items/hearingsregardin194902unit/hearingsregardin194902unit_bw.pdf Scientist X]") reading to Nelson "what appeared to be a technical formula used in the Project," which Nelson copied down.<ref>[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 6 (PDF 8)</ref> Weinberg told Nelson he had to return the formula to the University of California Radiation Laboratories in the morning. Several days later Nelson met with Peter Ivanov (a [[GRU]] agent operating out of the Soviet consulate in San Francisco,<ref>[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]</ref> where [[Grigory Kheifetz|Kheifetz]] was undercover as vice consul),<ref>[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?doc_id=43900&fuseaction=topics.publications&group_id=13349&topic_id=1409 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</ref> and gave him a package.<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 325</ref> A few days later, "Zubilin" ([[Vasily Zarubin]], NKVD station chief in the U.S. from 1941 to 1944) was transferred from the Soviet Embassy in Washington to the San Francisco consulate. Shortly thereafter, Zubilin gave Nelson ten bills of unknown denominations.<ref>Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 81st Cong., 1st sess., [http://ia311304.us.archive.org/1/items/hearingsregarding1949unit/hearingsregarding1949unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Steve Nelson] (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949), pp. VIII-IX (PDF pp. 12-13)</ref>

At least three of the five scientists under Oppenheimer's direct supervision [[leak]]ed secret information about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. These include [[Klaus Fuchs]], [[Theodore Hall]], and [[David Greenglass]].<ref>For '''Karl Fuchs''', see: {{hnb|Andrew & Mitrokhin|1999|Ref=CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999|p=114-115, 127-128, 131-132, 155, 164, 397}} Noting that Klaus Fuchs, a committed Stalinist, began spying while in Great Britain after fleeing Nazi Germany, and continued when he came to the United States to work on the Manhattan Project.  For '''Theodore Hall''', see: {{hnb|Andrew & Mitrokhin|1999|Ref=CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999|p=128-129, 131-132, 147-48, 164-65, 205}} (Cf. "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~sanders/214/other/news/obit-hall-ap.html Scientist, Spy for Soviets Dies]," The Associated Press, November 10, 1999). For '''David Greenglass''', see {{hnb|Andrew & Mitrokhin|1999|Ref=CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999|p=128, 131}}. For all see also also {{hnb|LANL|2007}}</ref> KGB archival data smuggled out by Vassiliev reveal that two more spies, Boris Podolsky (code-named Quantum) and Russell McNutt (code-named Fogel, later changed to Pers), were also at Los Alamos during Oppenheimer's tenure.<ref>[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 73, 339</ref>

At least three of the five scientists under Oppenheimer's direct supervision [[leak]]ed secret information about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. These include [[Klaus Fuchs]], [[Theodore Hall]], and [[David Greenglass]].<ref>For '''Karl Fuchs''', see: {{hnb|Andrew & Mitrokhin|1999|Ref=CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999|p=114-115, 127-128, 131-132, 155, 164, 397}} Noting that Klaus Fuchs, a committed Stalinist, began spying while in Great Britain after fleeing Nazi Germany, and continued when he came to the United States to work on the Manhattan Project.  For '''Theodore Hall''', see: {{hnb|Andrew & Mitrokhin|1999|Ref=CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999|p=128-129, 131-132, 147-48, 164-65, 205}} (Cf. "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~sanders/214/other/news/obit-hall-ap.html Scientist, Spy for Soviets Dies]," The Associated Press, November 10, 1999). For '''David Greenglass''', see {{hnb|Andrew & Mitrokhin|1999|Ref=CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999|p=128, 131}}. For all see also also {{hnb|LANL|2007}}</ref> KGB archival data smuggled out by Vassiliev reveal that two more spies, Boris Podolsky (code-named Quantum) and Russell McNutt (code-named Fogel, later changed to Pers), were also at Los Alamos during Oppenheimer's tenure.<ref>[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 73, 339</ref>

===Allegations against Oppenheimer===

===Allegations against Oppenheimer===

"The secrets in KGB memoirs, Soviet archival records and translations, and NSA decrpytions of Soviet war time cable traffic, codenamed VENONA, reveal: The cooperation of J. Robert Oppenheimer in atomic espionage from 1942 to 1944...." writes Schecter.<ref>Jerrold L. Schecter and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFoAAAAMAAJ Sacred secrets: how Soviet intelligence operations changed American history]'' (Brassey's, 2002) ISBN 1574883275, p. xxvi</ref> Herbert Romerstein, former chief of the U.S. Information Agency's Office to Counter Soviet Disinformation and Active Measures,<ref>[http://0-www.gpo.gov.library.colby.edu/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-10-21/html/CREC-1996-10-21-pt1-PgS12411.htm ''Congressional Record'', Vol. 142, Iss. 143 (Monday, October 21, 1996), p. S12415]</ref> agrees: "Atomic scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer performed work on behalf of the Soviet Union."<ref>[[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 449</ref> Oppenheimer supplied the Soviets with classified reports on atom bomb development&mdash;in part via Elizabeth Zarubina (wife of [[Vasily Zarubin]]), who was in direct contact with Oppenheimer's wife, Kitty&mdash;according to Pavel Sudoplatov, Moscow-based overseer of Soviet atom-bomb espionage. In his 1994 memoir, Sudoplatov wrote:

"The secrets in KGB memoirs, Soviet archival records and translations, and NSA decryptions of Soviet wartime cable traffic, codenamed VENONA, reveal: The cooperation of J. Robert Oppenheimer in atomic espionage from 1942 to 1944...." writes Schecter.<ref>Jerrold L. Schecter and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFoAAAAMAAJ Sacred secrets: how Soviet intelligence operations changed American history]'' (Brassey's, 2002) ISBN 1574883275, p. xxvi</ref> Herbert Romerstein, former chief of the U.S. Information Agency's Office to Counter Soviet Disinformation and Active Measures,<ref>[http://0-www.gpo.gov.library.colby.edu/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-10-21/html/CREC-1996-10-21-pt1-PgS12411.htm ''Congressional Record'', Vol. 142, Iss. 143 (Monday, October 21, 1996), p. S12415]</ref> agrees: "Atomic scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer performed work on behalf of the Soviet Union."<ref>[[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 449</ref> Oppenheimer supplied the Soviets with classified reports on atom bomb development&mdash;in part via [[Elizabeth Zarubina]] (wife of [[Vasily Zarubin]]), who was in direct contact with Oppenheimer's wife, Kitty&mdash;according to [[Pavel Sudoplatov]], Moscow-based overseer of Soviet atom-bomb espionage. In his 1994 memoir, Sudoplatov wrote:

{{cquote|I set up a network of illegals who convinced Robert Oppenheimer, [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Leo Szilard]], [[Bruno Pontecorvo]], Alan Nunn May, [[Klaus Fuchs]] and other scientists in America and Great Britain to share atomic secrets with us..... We received reports on the progress of the Manhattan Project from Oppenheimer and his friends in oral form, through comments and asides, and from documents transferred through clandestine methods with their full knowledge that the information they were sharing would be passed on. One agent cited Oppenheimer's stressing that information should be leaked so as not to be traceable to those who worked in Los Alamos. In all, there were five classified reports made available by Oppenheimer describing the progress of work on the atomic bomb.<ref>Pavel Sudoplatov and Anatoli Sudoplatov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_uExfHdLb8UC Special Tasks]'' (London: Little Brown and Company, 1994) ISBN 0316821152, pp. 192, 196, 206-207</ref>}}

{{cquote|I set up a network of illegals who convinced Robert Oppenheimer, [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Leo Szilard]], [[Bruno Pontecorvo]], Alan Nunn May, [[Klaus Fuchs]] and other scientists in America and Great Britain to share atomic secrets with us..... We received reports on the progress of the Manhattan Project from Oppenheimer and his friends in oral form, through comments and asides, and from documents transferred through clandestine methods with their full knowledge that the information they were sharing would be passed on. One agent cited Oppenheimer's stressing that information should be leaked so as not to be traceable to those who worked in Los Alamos. In all, there were five classified reports made available by Oppenheimer describing the progress of work on the atomic bomb.<ref>Pavel Sudoplatov and Anatoli Sudoplatov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_uExfHdLb8UC Special Tasks]'' (London: Little Brown and Company, 1994) ISBN 0316821152, pp. 192, 196, 206-207</ref>}}

Sudoplatov's allegations are corroborated by a 1982 letter he wrote to then-Soviet Premier [[Yuri Andropov]], stating: "Department S [Sudoplatov's department] rendered considerable help to our scientists by giving them the latest materials on atom bomb research, obtained from such sources as the famous nuclear physicists R. Oppenheimer, E. Fermi, [[Klaus Fuchs|K. Fuchs]] and others."<ref>Pavel Sudoplatov and Anatoli Sudoplatov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_uExfHdLb8UC Special Tasks]'' (London: Little Brown and Company, 1994) ISBN 0316821152, Appendix.</ref> Romerstein and Breindel comment: "It would have made no sense for Sudoplatov to lie to Andropov, the former head of KGB and dictator of the Soviet Union, who would have easily found him out."<ref>[[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 275</ref>

Sudoplatov's allegations are corroborated by a 1982 letter he wrote to then-Soviet Premier [[Yuri Andropov]], stating: "Department S [Sudoplatov's department] rendered considerable help to our scientists by giving them the latest materials on atom bomb research, obtained from such sources as the famous nuclear physicists R. Oppenheimer, E. Fermi, [[Klaus Fuchs|K. Fuchs]] and others."<ref>Pavel Sudoplatov and Anatoli Sudoplatov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_uExfHdLb8UC Special Tasks]'' (London: Little Brown and Company, 1994) ISBN 0316821152, Appendix.</ref> Romerstein and Breindel comment: "It would have made no sense for Sudoplatov to lie to Andropov, the former head of KGB and dictator of the Soviet Union, who would have easily found him out."<ref>[[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 275</ref>

{{cquote|that there was an approach made, that Dr. Oppenheimer knew of this approach, that at some point he was involved in that the approach was made to him&mdash;I don't mean involved in the sense that he gave anything&mdash;I mean he just knew about it personally from the fact that he was in the chain, and that he didn't report it in its entirety as he should have done.}}

{{cquote|that there was an approach made, that Dr. Oppenheimer knew of this approach, that at some point he was involved in that the approach was made to him&mdash;I don't mean involved in the sense that he gave anything&mdash;I mean he just knew about it personally from the fact that he was in the chain, and that he didn't report it in its entirety as he should have done.}}

Groves did not believe Oppenheimer's new story, testifying that he "had the very definite impression that Dr. Oppenheimer

Groves did not believe Oppenheimer's new story, testifying that he "had the very definite impression that Dr. Oppenheimer

wanted to protect his friends of long standing, possibly his brother."<ref>[[#refAEC|AEC Hearing]]: 167 (PDF 177)</ref>

wanted to protect his friends of long-standing, possibly his brother."<ref>[[#refAEC|AEC Hearing]]: 167 (PDF 177)</ref>

But Oppenheimer insisted that what he had told Pash about the three contacts was actually just “a cock-and-bull story.”<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 137 (PDF 147)</ref> "This whole thing was a pure fabrication except for the one name Eltenton," testified Oppenheimer, who called his previous story "a piece of idiocy" that was "wholly false."<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 149 (PDF 159)</ref> Asked "You lied to him?" Oppenheimer answered "Yes." Asked under oath for an explanation of why he had lied, the brilliant physicist testified, “Because I was an idiot.”<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 137 (PDF 147)</ref> Despite this incident, Oppenheimer was still meeting with Chevalier a decade later, including once in Paris,<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 150 (PDF 140)</ref> where, again, presumably "the FBI found it difficult to monitor his conversations."<ref>"[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html THE ATOM: A Matter of Character]," ''Time'', June 14, 1954</ref>

But Oppenheimer insisted that what he had told Pash about the three contacts was actually just “a cock-and-bull story.”<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 137 (PDF 147)</ref> "This whole thing was a pure fabrication except for the one name Eltenton," testified Oppenheimer, who called his previous story "a piece of idiocy" that was "wholly false."<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 149 (PDF 159)</ref> Asked "You lied to him?" Oppenheimer answered "Yes." Asked under oath for an explanation of why he had lied, the brilliant physicist testified, “Because I was an idiot.”<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 137 (PDF 147)</ref> Despite this incident, Oppenheimer was still meeting with Chevalier a decade later, including once in Paris,<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 150 (PDF 140)</ref> where, again, presumably "the FBI found it difficult to monitor his conversations."<ref>"[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html THE ATOM: A Matter of Character]," ''Time'', June 14, 1954</ref>

{{cquote|Putin had words of praise for the American scientists who willingly helped the USSR develop its own A-bomb. They were not traitors to their country, he said. Rather, they were serving the cause of international peace.<ref>Jerrold L. Schecter and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFoAAAAMAAJ Sacred secrets: how Soviet intelligence operations changed American history]'' (Brassey's, 2002) ISBN 1574883275, p. xix</ref>}}

{{cquote|Putin had words of praise for the American scientists who willingly helped the USSR develop its own A-bomb. They were not traitors to their country, he said. Rather, they were serving the cause of international peace.<ref>Jerrold L. Schecter and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFoAAAAMAAJ Sacred secrets: how Soviet intelligence operations changed American history]'' (Brassey's, 2002) ISBN 1574883275, p. xix</ref>}}

In 2012, according to Russia's government news agency Itar-Tass, Putin amplified these remarks:

In 2012, according to Russia's government news agency Itar-Tass, Putin amplified these remarks:

{{cquote|You know, when the States already had nuclear weapons and the Soviet Union was only building them, we got a significant amount of information through Soviet foreign intelligence channels ... They were carrying the information away not on microfilm but literally in suitcases. Suitcases! ... It was the cream of the scientific world that was gathered in America, and I personally have gotten the impression that they consciously gave us information on the atom bomb ... They did this consciously because the atom bomb had been used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and scientists from mankind’s intellectual elite at the time understood what unilateral possession of such a weapon might lead to.<ref>"[http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/putin-praises-cold-war-spies.aspx?pageID=238&nID=14477&NewsCatID=353 Putin praises Cold War spies], ''Hurriyet Daily News'' (Turkey), February 22, 2012</ref>}}

{{cquote|You know, when the States already had nuclear weapons and the Soviet Union was only building them, we got a significant amount of information through Soviet foreign intelligence channels ... They were carrying the information away not on microfilm but literally in suitcases. Suitcases! ... It was the cream of the scientific world that was gathered in America, and I personally have gotten the impression that they consciously gave us information on the atom bomb ... They did this consciously because the atom bomb had been used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and scientists from mankind’s intellectual elite at the time understood what [[unilateral]] possession of such a weapon might lead to.<ref>"[http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/putin-praises-cold-war-spies.aspx?pageID=238&nID=14477&NewsCatID=353 Putin praises Cold War spies], ''Hurriyet Daily News'' (Turkey), February 22, 2012</ref>}}

====The H-bomb====

====The H-bomb====

In 1947, Oppenheimer became Chairman of the AEC's General Advisory Committee (GAC) on Science.<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0422.html J. Robert Oppenheimer, Atom Bomb Pioneer, Dies]," ''The New York Times'', February 19, 1967</ref> On September 23, 1949, Truman announced that the Soviets had exploded their own atomic bomb.<ref>[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1234&st=&st1= Statement by the President on Announcing the First Atomic Explosion in the U.S.S.R.], September 23, 1949, Harry S. Truman Library & Museum</ref> (Within a month of breaking the U.S. nuclear monopoly, Soviet-backed Communist rebels would seize control of [[China]], inaugurating a regime that would eventually murder some 70 million Chinese;<ref>Courtois et al. estimate Communist China's murders at 65 million (Stephane Courtois, Jean-Louis Panne, Andrzej Paczkowski, Karel Bartosek, Jean-Louis Margolin [Mark Kramer, ed.; Jonathan Murphy, trans.], ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999] ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4); Jung and Halladay estimate "well over 70 million" (Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' [London: Jonathan Cape, 2005] ISBN 0224071262, pp. 3, 560, 651); Rummel estimates 77 million. R.J. Rummel, "[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php Death by Government: Stalin Beat Hitler but Mao Surpassed Both]," ''Orthodoxy Today'', December 4, 2005</ref> within a year, Soviet and Communist Chinese-backed [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea|North Korea]] would invade its neighbor to the south, launching a war that would claim more than 30,000 American lives.)<ref>John W. Chambers, II, ed. in chief, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=O7hmQgAACAAJ The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0-19-507198-0, p. 849</ref> AEC Commissioner Lewis Strauss, president of the board of trustees of the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton (where Oppenheimer was director), responded with a proposal that the U.S. make it "highest priority" to build a hydrogen bomb (then called the "super bomb").<ref>[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/library/correspondence/strauss-lewis/corr_strauss_1949-11-25.htm Letter on the development of the Thermonuclear Bomb], From: Lewis L Strauss, To: Harry S Truman, President of the United States of America, Date: November 25, 1949</ref>

In 1947, Oppenheimer became Chairman of the AEC's General Advisory Committee (GAC) on Science.<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0422.html J. Robert Oppenheimer, Atom Bomb Pioneer, Dies]," ''The New York Times'', February 19, 1967</ref> On September 23, 1949, Truman announced that the Soviets had exploded their own atomic bomb.<ref>[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1234&st=&st1= Statement by the President on Announcing the First Atomic Explosion in the U.S.S.R.], September 23, 1949, Harry S. Truman Library & Museum</ref> (Within a month of breaking the U.S. nuclear monopoly, Soviet-backed Communist rebels would seize control of [[China]], inaugurating a regime that would eventually murder some 70 million Chinese;<ref>Courtois et al. estimate Communist China's murders at 65 million (Stephane Courtois, Jean-Louis Panne, Andrzej Paczkowski, Karel Bartosek, Jean-Louis Margolin [Mark Kramer, ed.; Jonathan Murphy, trans.], ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999] ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4); Jung and Halladay estimate "well over 70 million" (Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' [London: Jonathan Cape, 2005] ISBN 0224071262, pp. 3, 560, 651); Rummel estimates 77 million. R.J. Rummel, "[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php Death by Government: Stalin Beat Hitler but Mao Surpassed Both]," ''Orthodoxy Today'', December 4, 2005</ref> within a year, Soviet and Communist Chinese-backed [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea|North Korea]] would invade its neighbor to the south, launching a war that would claim more than 30,000 American lives.)<ref>John W. Chambers, II, ed. in chief, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=O7hmQgAACAAJ The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0-19-507198-0, p. 849</ref> AEC Commissioner Lewis Strauss, president of the board of trustees of the Institute for Advanced Study at [[Princeton]] (where Oppenheimer was director), responded with a proposal that the U.S. make it "highest priority" to build a hydrogen bomb (then called the "super bomb").<ref>[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/library/correspondence/strauss-lewis/corr_strauss_1949-11-25.htm Letter on the development of the Thermonuclear Bomb], From: Lewis L Strauss, To: Harry S Truman, President of the United States of America, Date: November 25, 1949</ref>

On October 14, 1949, one GAC member, Glenn Seaborg, then a future [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1951/seaborg.html Nobel Laureate] (and future AEC Chairman), wrote to Oppenheimer, “I have been unable to come to the conclusion that we should not” proceed with this crash program to develop an H-bomb. “I would have to hear some good arguments before I could take on sufficient courage to recommend not going toward such a program."<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 238 (PDF 248)</ref>

On October 14, 1949, one GAC member, Glenn Seaborg, then a future [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1951/seaborg.html Nobel Laureate] (and future AEC Chairman), wrote to Oppenheimer, “I have been unable to come to the conclusion that we should not” proceed with this crash program to develop an H-bomb. “I would have to hear some good arguments before I could take on sufficient courage to recommend not going toward such a program."<ref>[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 238 (PDF 248)</ref>

==Death and Legacy==

==Death and Legacy==

Oppenheimer died in Princeton, New Jersey on February 18, 1967 from throat cancer.<ref>[http://history1900s.about.com/cs/robertoppenheimer/p/oppenheimer.htm J. Robert Oppenheimer]</ref>

Oppenheimer died in Princeton, New Jersey on February 18, 1967, from throat cancer.<ref>"[http://history1900s.about.com/cs/robertoppenheimer/p/oppenheimer.htm J. Robert Oppenheimer]</ref>  He had a habit of smoking "about 100 cigarettes a day."<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1255958/#:~:text=Robert%20Oppenheimer%2C%20the%20scientific%20director,named%20it%20the%20Manhattan%20Project.</ref>

In 1963, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson]] reinstated Oppenheimer's clearance, and the AEC awarded him the Enrico Fermi Award.<ref>[http://dsd.lbl.gov/ImgLib/COLLECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/SEABORG-ARCHIVE/index/96B05399.html J. Robert Oppenheimer receiving the AEC Enrico Fermi Award], photograph and description, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</ref>

In 1963, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson]] reinstated Oppenheimer's clearance, and the AEC awarded him the Enrico Fermi Award.<ref>[http://dsd.lbl.gov/ImgLib/COLLECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/SEABORG-ARCHIVE/index/96B05399.html J. Robert Oppenheimer receiving the AEC Enrico Fermi Award], photograph and description, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</ref>

In June 1997, the KGB museum in Moscow featured an exhibit of "leading atomic espionage agents and espionage documents." The exhibit featured Oppenheimer's image, displayed along with a photograph of convicted Soviet atomic spy Klaus Fuchs, and a shot of a Manhattan Project laboratory site. "Oppenheimer and other top scientists cooperated with us," former KGB official Yuri Kolesnikov told reporter Michael Chapman of ''[http://humanevents.com Human Events]''. They weren't Soviet agents, Kolesnikov said. But they "gave us information about the atom bomb," first because they were fearful that Hitler might defeat the Soviet Union in World War II and later because "Oppenheimer and the other scientists wanted to create a balance of power between the United States, which had the bomb, and the USSR, which didn't."<ref>Stephen Goode, "[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n37_v13/ai_19836506/ We Told You So: Secret Venona Intercepts]," ''Insight on the News'', Vol. 13, No. 37 (October 6–13, 1997)</ref> "Oppenheimer was not a Soviet agent like Fuchs," the museum's director told Chapman. "But, yes, he did cooperate with Soviet intelligence. That's why his picture is here."<ref>"[http://old.nationalreview.com/14july97/week.html The Week]," ''National Review'', July 14, 1997; "[http://old.nationalreview.com/28july97/week.html The Week]," ''National Review'', July 28, 1997</ref>

In June 1997, the KGB Museum in Moscow featured an exhibit of "leading atomic espionage agents and espionage documents." The exhibit featured Oppenheimer's image, displayed along with a photograph of convicted Soviet atomic spy Klaus Fuchs, and a shot of a Manhattan Project laboratory site. "Oppenheimer and other top scientists cooperated with us," former KGB official Yuri Kolesnikov told reporter Michael Chapman of ''[http://humanevents.com Human Events]''. They weren't Soviet agents, Kolesnikov said. But they "gave us information about the atom bomb," first because they were fearful that Hitler might defeat the Soviet Union in World War II and later because "Oppenheimer and the other scientists wanted to create a balance of power between the United States, which had the bomb, and the USSR, which didn't."<ref>Stephen Goode, "[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n37_v13/ai_19836506/ We Told You So: Secret Venona Intercepts]," ''Insight on the News'', Vol. 13, No. 37 (October 6–13, 1997)</ref> "Oppenheimer was not a Soviet agent like Fuchs," the museum's director told Chapman. "But, yes, he did cooperate with Soviet intelligence. That's why his picture is here."<ref>"[http://old.nationalreview.com/14july97/week.html The Week]," ''National Review'', July 14, 1997; "[http://old.nationalreview.com/28july97/week.html The Week]," ''National Review'', July 28, 1997</ref>

According to Haynes and Klehr, "Throughout his life Oppenheimer declined to provide a detailed or accurate accounting of his relationship with the CPUSA in the late 1930s and early 1940s and of his knowledge of Communists who worked on the Manhattan Project."<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 330</ref>

According to Haynes and Klehr, "Throughout his life Oppenheimer declined to provide a detailed or accurate accounting of his relationship with the CPUSA in the late 1930s and early 1940s and of his knowledge of Communists who worked on the Manhattan Project."<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 330</ref>

==External links==

==External links==

*[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.document&identifier=5034F6F1-96B6-175C-9170648C02EA02F8&sort=Collection&item=Post%20Stalin%20succession%20struggle Merkulov to Beria], 2 October 1944.

*[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.document&identifier=5034F6F1-96B6-175C-9170648C02EA02F8&sort=Collection&item=Post%20Stalin%20succession%20struggle Merkulov to Beria], 2 October 1944.

 

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oppenheimer, J. Robert}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oppenheimer, J. Robert}}

[[Category:Espionage]]

[[Category:Espionage]]