Changes

The United States responded to Sputnik by starting the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ("NASA") in 1958, which is a government-run space program that continues to this day.  In 1961, President Kennedy started "Project Apollo" with the goal of beating the Soviet Union to the Moon. On July 20, 1969, a simulated broadcast<ref>http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/15.01/nasa.html</ref> of American Neil Armstrong stepping foot on the Moon was broadcast to a record television audience, with Armstrong's words, "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind."<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/F_Apollo_35th_Anniversary.html</ref>

The United States responded to Sputnik by starting the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ("NASA") in 1958, which is a government-run space program that continues to this day.  In 1961, President Kennedy started "Project Apollo" with the goal of beating the Soviet Union to the Moon. On July 20, 1969, a simulated broadcast<ref>http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/15.01/nasa.html</ref> of American Neil Armstrong stepping foot on the Moon was broadcast to a record television audience, with Armstrong's words, "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind."<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/F_Apollo_35th_Anniversary.html</ref>

=== Communist takeover of Cuba, and also the Berlin Wall ===

=== Communist takeover of Cuba, and also the Berlin Wall ===

In the late 1950s, communism spread to a country only 90 miles from Florida:  Cuba, where we still hold a military base as an artifact of the Spanish-American war under President McKinley.  Recall that America gave Cuba freedom from Spain, but in 1959 the communists moved in with a revolution led by Fidel Castro.  The Soviet Union communist dictator Nikita Khrushchev threatened to drop an atomic bomb on us if we intervened.  Castro then ruled Cuba as a brutal dictator for more than four decades, imprisoning or killing those who disagree with him.

In the late 1950s, communism spread to a country only 90 miles from Florida:  Cuba, where we still hold a military base (Guantanamo Bay) as an artifact of the Spanish-American war under President McKinley.  Recall that America gave Cuba freedom from Spain, but in 1959 the communists moved in with a revolution led by Fidel Castro.  The Soviet Union communist dictator Nikita Khrushchev threatened to drop an atomic bomb on us if we intervened.  Castro then ruled as a brutal dictator over Cuba for more than four decades, imprisoning or killing those who disagreed with him.

Many Cubans fled to the United States to escape communism, and still flee by risking their lives in handmade boats.  These emigrants from Cuba are fervent opponents of communism because they see how it destroyed their own country, and many long to return to restore freedom there.  Marco Rubio, a conservative Republican U.S. Senator from Florida, was born in Miami to Cuban immigrants.

Many Cubans fled to the United States to escape communism, often in handmade boats.  These emigrants from Cuba were fervent opponents of communism because they see how it destroyed their own country, and many long to return to restore freedom there.  Marco Rubio, a conservative Republican U.S. Senator from Florida, was born in Miami to Cuban immigrants.

President Eisenhower developed a secret or "covert" plan to free Cuba from its communist dictatorship, which Kennedy continued after becoming president in 1961.  It consisted of having about a thousand "Cuban exiles," who had been forced to leave Cuba, form an army to invade and overthrow Castro.  But President Kennedy backed away from the plan at the last minute, and apparently someone (perhaps a communist infiltrator) in the United States government leaked word of the planned invasion to Castro, who then waited with a much bigger force and captured or killed the Cuban exiles when they invaded at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba in 1961.  The United States was humiliated by this "Bay of Pigs" tragedy.

President Eisenhower developed a secret or "covert" plan to free Cuba from its communist dictatorship, which Kennedy continued after becoming president in 1961.  It consisted of having about a thousand "Cuban exiles," who had been forced to leave Cuba, form an army to invade and overthrow Castro.  But President Kennedy backed away from the plan at the last minute, and apparently someone (perhaps a communist infiltrator) in the United States government leaked word of the planned invasion to Castro, who then waited with a much bigger force and captured or killed the Cuban exiles when they invaded at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba in 1961.  The United States was humiliated by this "Bay of Pigs" tragedy.

President Kennedy was himself assassinated two years later in 1963 in Dallas by a communist sympathizer, Lee Harvey Oswald, who had once tried to become a citizen of the Soviet Union and who supported Castro.  Oswald was in communication with communist Soviet Union agents in Mexico City, and had previously attempted to murder an outspokenly conservative American general (Ted Walker) but was not caught for that crime.  An official commission headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren later concluded that Oswald acted alone, but unanswered questions remain concerning the assassination of President Kennedy and most Americans believe that there was a conspiracy by multiple people to commit this crime.  An independent poll conducted in 2003 (by ABC) showed that 68% of Americans believed that the government covered up the real truth about this assassination and that Oswald did not act alone.

President Kennedy was himself assassinated two years later in 1963 in Dallas by a communist sympathizer, Lee Harvey Oswald, who had once tried to become a citizen of the Soviet Union and who supported Castro.  Oswald was in communication with communist Soviet Union agents in Mexico City, and had previously attempted to murder an outspokenly conservative American general (Ted Walker) but was not caught for that crime.  An official commission headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren later concluded that Oswald acted alone in assassinating Kennedy, but unanswered questions remain and most Americans believe that there was a conspiracy by multiple people to commit this crime.  An independent poll conducted in 2003 (by ABC) showed that 68% of Americans believed that the government covered up the real truth about this assassination and that Oswald did not act alone.

Spying was a central aspect of the Cold War.  The United States sent secret spy planes to fly over the Soviet Union to take pictures of activities there from high in the sky.  But in 1960, while Eisenhower was still president, one of these "U-2" planes crashed and an American pilot was captured.  This caused an international uproar and hurt ongoing attempts at reconciliation (rapprochement).  The pilot was later traded in exchange for a Soviet spy held by the United States, but the cause of the crash of the U-2 plane remains a mystery.

Spying was a central aspect of the Cold War.  The United States sent secret spy planes to fly over the Soviet Union to take pictures of activities there from high in the sky.  But in 1960, while Eisenhower was still president, one of these "U-2" planes crashed and an American pilot was captured.  This caused an international uproar and hurt ongoing attempts at reconciliation (rapprochement).  The pilot was later traded in exchange for release of a Soviet spy held by the United States, but the cause of the crash of the U-2 plane remains a mystery even now.

[[File:Berlinermauer.jpg|left|200px|thumb|the Berlin Wall as photographed from the free West Berlin side, in 1986, which was a symbol of the Cold War]]

[[File:Berlinermauer.jpg|left|200px|thumb|the Berlin Wall as photographed from the free West Berlin side, in 1986, which was a symbol of the Cold War]]

In 1961, soon after the inauguration of the new President John F. Kennedy (the only Catholic president, who had defeated Richard Nixon in a very close election in 1960), the communists built the "Berlin Wall" quickly while Kennedy was enjoying a long vacation weekend.  This Wall sealed off the East German section of Berlin from the West German section in order to stop the migration of people from communism to freedom.  It was a humiliation to Kennedy that he did nothing to stop this, and many Americans were outraged by this barbarism of a massive wall to cage people in and extinguish their freedom to leave.  Daring escapes by people from communist East Berlin by going over, under, or barreling through the law are fun to read about, but some were shot or died trying.

In 1961, soon after the inauguration of the new President John F. Kennedy (the only Catholic president, who had defeated Richard Nixon in a very close election in 1960), the communists built the "Berlin Wall" quickly while Kennedy was enjoying a long vacation weekend.  This Wall sealed off the East German section of Berlin from the West German section in order to stop the migration of people from communism to freedom.  It was a humiliation to Kennedy that he did nothing to stop this, and many Americans were outraged by this barbarism of a massive wall to cage people in and extinguish their freedom to leave.  Daring escapes by people from communist East Berlin by going over, under, or barreling through the Berlin Wall are fun to read about, but some were shot or died trying.

Then, in 1962, the Soviet Union challenged President Kennedy again, whom the communists did not respect.  They installed missiles in Cuba, which the communist Fidel Castro had taken over, and aimed them directly at American cities and targets.  Cuba, a mere 90 miles from Florida, could then destroy American cities in a very short period time.  This created the "Cuban Missile Crisis" when U-2 spy planes photographed these missiles, and a United States Air Force general immediately put bombers on high alert for the possible bombing of Cuba.  President Kennedy then ordered a blockade of Cuba until the missiles were removed, and the Soviet Union backed down and apparently took the missiles back by ship.

Then, in 1962, the Soviet Union challenged President Kennedy again, whom the communists did not respect.  They installed missiles in Cuba, which the communist Fidel Castro had taken over, and aimed them directly at American cities and targets.  Cuba, a mere 90 miles from Florida, could then destroy American cities in a very short period time.  This created the "Cuban Missile Crisis" when U-2 spy planes photographed these missiles, and a United States Air Force general immediately put bombers on high alert for the possible bombing of Cuba.  President Kennedy next ordered a blockade of Cuba until the missiles were removed, and the Soviet Union backed down and apparently took the missiles back by ship or hid them out of sight.

=== The "Arms Race" and "Mutually Assured Destruction" ===

=== The "Arms Race" and "Mutually Assured Destruction" ===