Changes

When California came under American rule in 1846, the population of Los Angeles comprised about 300 Latino families and a few Anglo merchants. In 1869, the city formed its own [[police]] force, the Los Angeles Police Department, aka LAPD, who is/has been the subject of many [[motion picture]]s, [[television]] programs, [[news]] stories and [[novel]]s. The city began growing when Henry Huntington's Southern Pacific railroad, subsidized by local government, opened lines to San Francisco in 1876 and through Arizona and Texas to the eastern U.S. in 1883.<ref>Richard J. Orsi, ''Sunset Limited: The Southern Pacific Railroad and the Development of the American West, 1880-1930'' (2005)</ref>

When California came under American rule in 1846, the population of Los Angeles comprised about 300 Latino families and a few Anglo merchants. In 1869, the city formed its own [[police]] force, the Los Angeles Police Department, aka LAPD, who is/has been the subject of many [[motion picture]]s, [[television]] programs, [[news]] stories and [[novel]]s. The city began growing when Henry Huntington's Southern Pacific railroad, subsidized by local government, opened lines to San Francisco in 1876 and through Arizona and Texas to the eastern U.S. in 1883.<ref>Richard J. Orsi, ''Sunset Limited: The Southern Pacific Railroad and the Development of the American West, 1880-1930'' (2005)</ref>

After a decade of prosperity, the cattle industry collapsed after the drought of 1862-63 ruining the landowners. The Californios—fewer than 2000 people—faded into obscurity, losing their ranches through bankruptcy and court cases.  The old Spanish-Mexican culture faded, but reappeared in 20th century mission-style architecture. For a time the small town endured a reputation for lawlessness and vigilantism. Promotion of the region's agricultural potential brought newcomers—Yankees and Midwesterners.  The boom came in 1886-88, sparked by a rate war between the Southern Pacific and the Sante Fe railroads that caused a land boom; by 1890 the city's population reached 50,000. The 1890s saw extensive advertising of the region's climate and opportunities to the rest of the United States, along with congressional approval of the development of key harbor facilities at San Pedro. The first suburbs appeared in Compton (1869) and Pasadena (1875)--part of LA County but entirely separate from the city of Los Angeles.  By 1900 Los Angeles had been transformed into a substantially Protestant, midsized growth center, boosted as a land of opportunity for  Americans, especially Midwesterners.  As soon as they arrived they formed clubs named for their former states to remember their roots.<ref>Leonard Pitt, "The Midwesternization of a Cowtown" ''California History'' 1981 60(1): 28-49. 0162-2897</ref>

After a decade of prosperity, the cattle industry collapsed after the drought of 1862-63 ruining the landowners. The Californios—fewer than 2000 people—faded into obscurity, losing their ranches through bankruptcy and court cases.  The old Spanish-Mexican culture faded, but reappeared in 20th century mission-style architecture. For a time the small town endured a reputation for lawlessness and vigilantism. Promotion of the region's agricultural potential brought newcomers—Yankees and Midwesterners.  The boom came in 1886–88, sparked by a rate war between the Southern Pacific and the Sante Fe railroads that caused a land boom; by 1890 the city's population reached 50,000. The 1890s saw extensive advertising of the region's climate and opportunities to the rest of the United States, along with congressional approval of the development of key harbor facilities at San Pedro. The first suburbs appeared in Compton (1869) and Pasadena (1875)--part of LA County but entirely separate from the city of Los Angeles.  By 1900 Los Angeles had been transformed into a substantially Protestant, midsized growth center, boosted as a land of opportunity for  Americans, especially Midwesterners.  As soon as they arrived they formed clubs named for their former states to remember their roots.<ref>Leonard Pitt, "The Midwesternization of a Cowtown" ''California History'' 1981 60(1): 28-49. 0162-2897</ref>

[[Image:La-1900.jpg|thumb|250px|LA in 1900--mostly orange groves and empty land]]

[[Image:La-1900.jpg|thumb|250px|LA in 1900--mostly orange groves and empty land]]

[[Image:OralRoberts.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Oral Roberts]] week-long revival in Los Angeles, 1957]]

[[Image:OralRoberts.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Oral Roberts]] week-long revival in Los Angeles, 1957]]

[[Pentecostalism]] moved from the fringes to the mainstream with the '''Azusa Street Revival''' in 1906-1909. This event was marked by great emotional excitement, relatively brief interracial harmony, and an obsession with speaking in tongues and healing. It was touched off by the preaching of William J. Seymour, an African American who had absorbed the teachings of Charles F. Parham in Texas. Other Pentecostal revivals in other cities also played a major role, but Pentecostals have envisioned Azusa Street as a sacred event.<ref>Joe Creech, "Visions of Glory: The Place of the Azusa Street Revival in Pentecostal History," ''Church History'', Vol. 65, No. 3 (Sep., 1996), pp. 405-424 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3169938 in JSTOR]</ref>

[[Pentecostalism]] moved from the fringes to the mainstream with the '''Azusa Street Revival''' in 1906–1909. This event was marked by great emotional excitement, relatively brief interracial harmony, and an obsession with speaking in tongues and healing. It was touched off by the preaching of William J. Seymour, an African American who had absorbed the teachings of Charles F. Parham in Texas. Other Pentecostal revivals in other cities also played a major role, but Pentecostals have envisioned Azusa Street as a sacred event.<ref>Joe Creech, "Visions of Glory: The Place of the Azusa Street Revival in Pentecostal History," ''Church History'', Vol. 65, No. 3 (Sep., 1996), pp. 405-424 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3169938 in JSTOR]</ref>

One of the two best-known religious radio personalities of the 1930s was "Sister Aimee" - [[Aimee Semple McPherson]] (1890-1944).<ref>Charles Coughlin, also a Canadian, was the other. He was a Catholic priest based in Detroit.</ref>  A flamboyant evangelist, she was dynamic, colorful, charismatic, and a passionate preacher who founded the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel in Los Angeles, California. She mastered organized evangelism; at the height of her California ministry, McPherson preached each week to a congregation of over 5,000 people.

One of the two best-known religious radio personalities of the 1930s was "Sister Aimee" - [[Aimee Semple McPherson]] (1890-1944).<ref>Charles Coughlin, also a Canadian, was the other. He was a Catholic priest based in Detroit.</ref>  A flamboyant evangelist, she was dynamic, colorful, charismatic, and a passionate preacher who founded the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel in Los Angeles, California. She mastered organized evangelism; at the height of her California ministry, McPherson preached each week to a congregation of over 5,000 people.

===World War I and 1920s===

===World War I and 1920s===

Patriotism suffused the city in 1917-18. The [[Committee on Public Information]]'s Division of [[Four Minute Men|Four-Minute Men]] promoted enthusiasm for the American wartime role and for war bond sales. This nationwide group gave four-minute speeches in public places, such as movie theaters. In Los Angeles, it was led by attorney Marshall Stimson; 215 men gave short 4-minute speeches in more than seventy movie houses. The speakers were white, Republican, and professional, including attorneys, bankers, and successful businessmen who supported progressive causes. Their voluntary patriotic effort showed how noncombatants could support the nation's war effort.<ref>M. Guy Bishop, "'Strong Voices and 100 Per Cent Patriotism': The Four-Minute Men of Los Angeles County, 1917-1918." ''Southern California Quarterly'' 1995 77(3): 199-214. 0038-3929</ref>

Patriotism suffused the city in 1917–18. The [[Committee on Public Information]]'s Division of [[Four Minute Men|Four-Minute Men]] promoted enthusiasm for the American wartime role and for war bond sales. This nationwide group gave four-minute speeches in public places, such as movie theaters. In Los Angeles, it was led by attorney Marshall Stimson; 215 men gave short 4-minute speeches in more than seventy movie houses. The speakers were white, Republican, and professional, including attorneys, bankers, and successful businessmen who supported progressive causes. Their voluntary patriotic effort showed how noncombatants could support the nation's war effort.<ref>M. Guy Bishop, "'Strong Voices and 100 Per Cent Patriotism': The Four-Minute Men of Los Angeles County, 1917-1918." ''Southern California Quarterly'' 1995 77(3): 199-214. 0038-3929</ref>

Besides the fame and wealth it gained as the world center of the movie industry, every dimension of the Los Angeles showed dramatic growth in the 1920s. Producing one-fifth of all the oil in the world, Los Angeles became a major center for financing, refining, and for tool construction for the oil industry. The port was second only to New York City in exports, shipping not only oranges and oil but also the myriad products of the city's manufacturing base, which had expanded to included automobiles, tires, steel, and the new aircraft industry. In 1928, Christine Collins' son, Walter, disappeared from the city and was never found, causing much bad publicity for Los Angeles Police Department who was corrupt and brutal then during Prohibition. This event was the plot of Clint Eastwood's 2008 production and direction movie, ''Changeling'', starring Angelina Jolie as Christine and John Malkovich, based on the Wineville Chicken Coop Murders of 1928.

Besides the fame and wealth it gained as the world center of the movie industry, every dimension of the Los Angeles showed dramatic growth in the 1920s. Producing one-fifth of all the oil in the world, Los Angeles became a major center for financing, refining, and for tool construction for the oil industry. The port was second only to New York City in exports, shipping not only oranges and oil but also the myriad products of the city's manufacturing base, which had expanded to included automobiles, tires, steel, and the new aircraft industry. In 1928, Christine Collins' son, Walter, disappeared from the city and was never found, causing much bad publicity for Los Angeles Police Department who was corrupt and brutal then during Prohibition. This event was the plot of Clint Eastwood's 2008 production and direction movie, ''Changeling'', starring Angelina Jolie as Christine and John Malkovich, based on the Wineville Chicken Coop Murders of 1928.

see [[Owens Valley water dispute]]

see [[Owens Valley water dispute]]

As Los Angeles grew from 100,000 to 175,000 people during 1900-04, city engineer William Mulholland worked with former Mayor Fred Eaton to secure water rights to the Owens River, more than 200 miles away. Los Angeles voters approved bonds for the aqueduct and in 1907 construction started on the project. Ranchers in the Owens Valley showed their opinion of the Owens River Aqueduct in a series of dynamitings between 1924 and 1928. Owens Valley resistance ended with the failure of the Watterson banks in 1927; the Watterson brothers had headed the Owens Valley Property Owners, which sought huge sums for their water. They had impoverished the Owens Valley by embezzling millions and were trying to recoup their losses by extorting Los Angeles. By 1913 when the aqueduct opened, the growth of the city had already overtaken Mulholland's population projections, and within a decade the city was searching for additional water supplies.  The aqueducts remain in operation, and serves many more people today because oranges are no longer grown in LA and they had used most of the water.   

As Los Angeles grew from 100,000 to 175,000 people during 1900–04, city engineer William Mulholland worked with former Mayor Fred Eaton to secure water rights to the Owens River, more than 200 miles away. Los Angeles voters approved bonds for the aqueduct and in 1907 construction started on the project. Ranchers in the Owens Valley showed their opinion of the Owens River Aqueduct in a series of dynamitings between 1924 and 1928. Owens Valley resistance ended with the failure of the Watterson banks in 1927; the Watterson brothers had headed the Owens Valley Property Owners, which sought huge sums for their water. They had impoverished the Owens Valley by embezzling millions and were trying to recoup their losses by extorting Los Angeles. By 1913 when the aqueduct opened, the growth of the city had already overtaken Mulholland's population projections, and within a decade the city was searching for additional water supplies.  The aqueducts remain in operation, and serves many more people today because oranges are no longer grown in LA and they had used most of the water.   

The failure of the St Francis Dam, a storage facility for aqueduct water, in 1928 effectively ended Mulholland's career. The dam break killed over four hundred people in the San Francisquito and Santa Clara River valleys and Mulholland accepted responsibility for it.<ref>Catherine Mulholland, "William Mulholland and the St. Francis Dam." ''Southern California Quarterly'' 1995 77(1-2): 111-137. 0038-3929</ref>  In 2009 severe droughts caused another major water shortage crisis for all of southern California.

The failure of the St Francis Dam, a storage facility for aqueduct water, in 1928 effectively ended Mulholland's career. The dam break killed over four hundred people in the San Francisquito and Santa Clara River valleys and Mulholland accepted responsibility for it.<ref>Catherine Mulholland, "William Mulholland and the St. Francis Dam." ''Southern California Quarterly'' 1995 77(1-2): 111-137. 0038-3929</ref>  In 2009 severe droughts caused another major water shortage crisis for all of southern California.

The city made some 73 annexations over the years, most notably in the San Fernando Valley, expanding in size from 43 to 442 square miles. Many areas joined to get access to the city's famous water supply. However, many other [[suburb]]s—especially those with oil wells—retained their political independence from the city.

The city made some 73 annexations over the years, most notably in the San Fernando Valley, expanding in size from 43 to 442 square miles. Many areas joined to get access to the city's famous water supply. However, many other [[suburb]]s—especially those with oil wells—retained their political independence from the city.

Los Angeles is famous as a collection of many suburbs with a very weak central city.  Unlike eastern cities LA was not created by the expansion of suburbs spreading outward from the city center over time. Instead suburbs grew up around dispersed hubs of manufacturing and job creation, all linked by highways.<ref>Greg Hise, "Home Building and Industrial Decentralization in Los Angeles: The Roots of the Postwar Urban Region." ''Journal of Urban History'' 1993 19(2): 95-125. [http://juh.sagepub.com/cgi/pdf_extract/19/2/95 online]</ref>  Los Angeles therefore spread out to great distances, allowing people to own houses because land was cheap.  The vast San Fernando Valley is legally part of the City but is only loosely connected with the rest of LA and has several times tried—and failed—to secede.  Meanwhile, most suburbs in the County of Los Angeles are entirely independent of the City of Los Angeles. During 1900-40, Los Angeles suburbs for the working class offered residents an opportunity to maximize the productive uses of their property in their quest for economic security and insulation from an unpredictable marketplace, thus fulfilling the class-based needs of suburbanites. These were rough-hewn communities, where multi-ethnic residents grew produce and livestock in backyards, built their own homes, and paid low taxes. The nature and function of these suburbs defy traditional scholarly portrayals of suburbia as the pastoral, exclusive haven of the white middle class. Such communities were surprisingly prevalent in Los Angeles before World War II. By 1940, 72% of all incorporated suburbs were predominantly working class. Four categories of these communities existed: industrial suburbs, labor camp suburbs, domestic service suburbs, and farm-fringe streetcar suburbs. Many of these communities were "unplanned," allowing residents to rely on their own labor as a means of entering the ranks of suburban home ownership. Early-20th century suburban development illustrates how working people shaped the residential landscape of early Los Angeles.<ref>Becky M. Nicolaides, "'Where The Working Man is Welcomed': Working-Class Suburbs in Los Angeles, 1900-1940" ''Pacific Historical Review'' 1999 68(4): 517-559. 0030-8684</ref>

Los Angeles is famous as a collection of many suburbs with a very weak central city.  Unlike eastern cities LA was not created by the expansion of suburbs spreading outward from the city center over time. Instead suburbs grew up around dispersed hubs of manufacturing and job creation, all linked by highways.<ref>Greg Hise, "Home Building and Industrial Decentralization in Los Angeles: The Roots of the Postwar Urban Region." ''Journal of Urban History'' 1993 19(2): 95-125. [http://juh.sagepub.com/cgi/pdf_extract/19/2/95 online]</ref>  Los Angeles therefore spread out to great distances, allowing people to own houses because land was cheap.  The vast San Fernando Valley is legally part of the City but is only loosely connected with the rest of LA and has several times tried—and failed—to secede.  Meanwhile, most suburbs in the County of Los Angeles are entirely independent of the City of Los Angeles. During 1900–40, Los Angeles suburbs for the working class offered residents an opportunity to maximize the productive uses of their property in their quest for economic security and insulation from an unpredictable marketplace, thus fulfilling the class-based needs of suburbanites. These were rough-hewn communities, where multi-ethnic residents grew produce and livestock in backyards, built their own homes, and paid low taxes. The nature and function of these suburbs defy traditional scholarly portrayals of suburbia as the pastoral, exclusive haven of the white middle class. Such communities were surprisingly prevalent in Los Angeles before World War II. By 1940, 72% of all incorporated suburbs were predominantly working class. Four categories of these communities existed: industrial suburbs, labor camp suburbs, domestic service suburbs, and farm-fringe streetcar suburbs. Many of these communities were "unplanned," allowing residents to rely on their own labor as a means of entering the ranks of suburban home ownership. Early-20th century suburban development illustrates how working people shaped the residential landscape of early Los Angeles.<ref>Becky M. Nicolaides, "'Where The Working Man is Welcomed': Working-Class Suburbs in Los Angeles, 1900-1940" ''Pacific Historical Review'' 1999 68(4): 517-559. 0030-8684</ref>

===1940s===

===1940s===

Fletcher Bowron  (1887-1968) was the mayor 1938-1953 who led LA from depression through war to postwar reconversion, as the great war industries—aircraft especially—were a magnet for hundreds of thousands of workers.  Bowron swept into office in a landslide after Mayor Frank Shaw was ousted in a recall election in 1938 because of vice and corruption.<ref>Shaw, a Democrats, was elected in 1933; Bowron was a Republican. Daniel Hurewitz, "Goody-Goodies, Sissies, and Long-Hairs: The Dangerous Figures in 1930s Los Angeles Political Culture." ''Journal of Urban History'' 2006 33(1): 26-50</ref>  Bowron's repeated election victories reflected the image of a devoted reformer and efficiency expert; he built a shifting coalition of union members, businessmen, Protestant clergy, and liberals of various stripes.  He helped move the Japanese to relocation camps, and clamped down on the Latino "Zoot Suit" troublemakers, while reducing policy misbehavior. After the war he distanced himself from the labor unions in order to promote rapid growth of business enterprise.  More conservative voters rejected his advocacy of public housing; the recall election of 1953 removed him from office.<ref>Tom Sitton, ''Los Angeles Transformed: Fletcher Bowron's Urban Reform Revival, 1938-1953,'' (2005)</ref>

Fletcher Bowron  (1887-1968) was the mayor 1938-1953 who led LA from depression through war to postwar reconversion, as the great war industries—aircraft especially—were a magnet for hundreds of thousands of workers.  Bowron swept into office in a landslide after Mayor Frank Shaw was ousted in a recall election in 1938 because of vice and corruption.<ref>Shaw, a Democrats, was elected in 1933; Bowron was a Republican. Daniel Hurewitz, "Goody-Goodies, Sissies, and Long-Hairs: The Dangerous Figures in 1930s Los Angeles Political Culture." ''Journal of Urban History'' 2006 33(1): 26-50</ref>  Bowron's repeated election victories reflected the image of a devoted reformer and efficiency expert; he built a shifting coalition of union members, businessmen, Protestant clergy, and liberals of various stripes.  He helped move the Japanese to relocation camps, and clamped down on the Latino "Zoot Suit" troublemakers, while reducing policy misbehavior. After the war he distanced himself from the labor unions in order to promote rapid growth of business enterprise.  More conservative voters rejected his advocacy of public housing; the recall election of 1953 removed him from office.<ref>Tom Sitton, ''Los Angeles Transformed: Fletcher Bowron's Urban Reform Revival, 1938-1953,'' (2005)</ref>

====Japanese relocation====

====Japanese relocation====

The Japanese population—especially the older members, who were born in Japan and were not U.S. citizens—had celebrated Japanese military victories over China before Pearl Harbor. They became highly suspect. They, and their children (who were U.S. citizens) were all removed from the coast to inland relocation centers. They returned in 1944-45.

The Japanese population—especially the older members, who were born in Japan and were not U.S. citizens—had celebrated Japanese military victories over China before Pearl Harbor. They became highly suspect. They, and their children (who were U.S. citizens) were all removed from the coast to inland relocation centers. They returned in 1944–45.

====Zoot Suit Riot====

====Zoot Suit Riot====

===1970s===

===1970s===

Elected to an unprecedented fifth term as mayor of Los Angeles in 1989, Tom Bradley (1917-1998) was mayor for 20 years, 1973-1993, with an electoral base among blacks, Jews, Hollywood, liberals, Latinos, and big corporations. Bradley lost to conservative Democrat [[Sam Yorty]] in 1969, but unseated Yorty in 1973. Bradley enjoyed high popularity in spite of his failure to redress the problems of gang warfare, drug abuse, poor housing, unemployment, and poor schools. His success came from his skillful low-key organizing tactics and his high-profile use of symbolic politics. The latter has allowed well-organized groups to maintain control of city government and make the mayor their pawn.<ref>John M. Allswang, "Tom Bradley of Los Angeles". ''Southern California Quarterly'' 1992 74(1): 55-105; James A. Regalado, "Organized Labor and Los Angeles City Politics: An Assessment in the Bradley Years, 1973-1989" ''Urban Affairs Quarterly'' 1991 27(1): 87-108. 0042-0816;  Byran Jackson, "Black Political Power in the City of Angels: An Analysis of Mayor Tom Bradley's Electoral Success," ''National Political Science Review'' 1990 2: 169-175. 0896-629x</ref>

Elected to an unprecedented fifth term as mayor of Los Angeles in 1989, Tom Bradley (1917-1998) was mayor for 20 years, 1973–1993, with an electoral base among blacks, Jews, Hollywood, liberals, Latinos, and big corporations. Bradley lost to conservative Democrat [[Sam Yorty]] in 1969, but unseated Yorty in 1973. Bradley enjoyed high popularity in spite of his failure to redress the problems of gang warfare, drug abuse, poor housing, unemployment, and poor schools. His success came from his skillful low-key organizing tactics and his high-profile use of symbolic politics. The latter has allowed well-organized groups to maintain control of city government and make the mayor their pawn.<ref>John M. Allswang, "Tom Bradley of Los Angeles". ''Southern California Quarterly'' 1992 74(1): 55-105; James A. Regalado, "Organized Labor and Los Angeles City Politics: An Assessment in the Bradley Years, 1973-1989" ''Urban Affairs Quarterly'' 1991 27(1): 87-108. 0042-0816;  Byran Jackson, "Black Political Power in the City of Angels: An Analysis of Mayor Tom Bradley's Electoral Success," ''National Political Science Review'' 1990 2: 169-175. 0896-629x</ref>

===1980===

===1980===

The 1980s saw Los Angeles' bicentennial (200th) anniversary in 1981 but also that year as the first U.S. city where symptoms of what would a year

The 1980s saw Los Angeles' bicentennial (200th) anniversary in 1981 but also that year as the first U.S. city where symptoms of what would a year

later be known as AIDS' where reported from, making Los Angeles one of the top three highest reporting cities for it, after New York's

later be known as AIDS' where reported from, making Los Angeles one of the top three highest reporting cities for it, after New York's

first and San Francisco's second; now Los Angeles is second in AIDS cases after New York City with San Francisco as third. Many heavy metal and New Wave rock bands who were popular in the 1980's were formed in Los Angeles during that decade as well as many rap musicians.

first and San Francisco's second; now Los Angeles is second in AIDS cases after New York City with San Francisco as third. Many heavy metal and New Wave rock bands who were popular in the 1980s were formed in Los Angeles during that decade as well as many rap musicians.

===Riots and crime===

===Riots and crime===

When the four police officers who had been videotaped beating motorist Rodney King were found not guilty of criminal acts in 1992, the city erupted in the worst rioting seen in the United States since the 1960s.  Black ghetto neighborhoods were aflame as attacks and lootings went on three nights and two days. The riot was produced by social forces that included the end of Cold War federal spending and the ensuing regional recession, the movement of middle-class blacks out of South Central Los Angeles into safer neighborhoods, and the failure of local and state leaders to handle tensions emerging in rising crime, drug abuse and gangs. The increasingly violent underclass in the inner city was a challenge that that Mayor [[Tom Bradley]] could not deal with politically since he had come to office in a middle class coalition. Police Chief Daryl Gates aggressively attacked with Operation Hammer street, using sweeps of South Central streets rather than a softer community policing approach. That kept the thugs low until the riot released all restraints. The loss of life and destruction of property left permanent economic damage. Tensions remain very high between blacks and Koreans, who owned many of the stores and shops that came under violent attack.<ref>See Lou Cannon, ''Official Negligence: How Rodney King and the Riots Changed Los Angeles and the LAPD'' (1997), [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=3188 online review]</ref> In 1993, a federal trial held in Los Angeles itself resulted in convictions of two of these officers-Stacey Koon and Laurence Powell-who served 2 1/2 year sentences each as well as termination from LAPD. The other two defendants, Ted Briseno and Timothy Wind, were acquitted again but were also fired from LAPD before the decade was half over and earlier in this century left California altogether.

When the four police officers who had been videotaped beating motorist Rodney King were found not guilty of criminal acts in 1992, the city erupted in the worst rioting seen in the United States since the 1960s.  Black ghetto neighborhoods were aflame as attacks and lootings went on three nights and two days. The riot was produced by social forces that included the end of Cold War federal spending and the ensuing regional recession, the movement of middle-class blacks out of South Central Los Angeles into safer neighborhoods, and the failure of local and state leaders to handle tensions emerging in rising crime, drug abuse and gangs. The increasingly violent underclass in the inner city was a challenge that that Mayor [[Tom Bradley]] could not deal with politically since he had come to office in a middle class coalition. Police Chief Daryl Gates aggressively attacked with Operation Hammer street, using sweeps of South Central streets rather than a softer community policing approach. That kept the thugs low until the riot released all restraints. The loss of life and destruction of property left permanent economic damage. Tensions remain very high between blacks and Koreans, who owned many of the stores and shops that came under violent attack.<ref>See Lou Cannon, ''Official Negligence: How Rodney King and the Riots Changed Los Angeles and the LAPD'' (1997), [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=3188 online review]</ref> In 1993, a federal trial held in Los Angeles itself resulted in convictions of two of these officers-Stacey Koon and Laurence Powell-who served 2 1/2 year sentences each as well as termination from LAPD. The other two defendants, Ted Briseno and Timothy Wind, were acquitted again but were also fired from LAPD before the decade was half over and earlier in this century left California altogether.

William Bratton, LA police chief from 2002 to 2009, introduced extensive use of computerized data to allocate police resources, and saw crime rates fall steadily—just as they had when he headed the New York City police, 1994-96. Major crimes in LA were down crimes down 33% and homicides down 41%.  He had to implement court-ordered reforms to stop police corruption and brutality while supervising  9,800 sworn officers, 3,000 civilian employees, and billion dollar budget.

William Bratton, LA police chief from 2002 to 2009, introduced extensive use of computerized data to allocate police resources, and saw crime rates fall steadily—just as they had when he headed the New York City police, 1994–96. Major crimes in LA were down crimes down 33% and homicides down 41%.  He had to implement court-ordered reforms to stop police corruption and brutality while supervising  9,800 sworn officers, 3,000 civilian employees, and billion dollar budget.

===Latino power===

===Latino power===

* Sitton, Tom and Deverell, William, eds. ''Metropolis in the Making: Los Angeles in the 1920s.'' (2001). 371 pp.

* Sitton, Tom and Deverell, William, eds. ''Metropolis in the Making: Los Angeles in the 1920s.'' (2001). 371 pp.

* Verge, Arthur C. ''Paradise Transformed: Los Angeles during the Second World War.'' (1993). 177 pp.

* Verge, Arthur C. ''Paradise Transformed: Los Angeles during the Second World War.'' (1993). 177 pp.

* Verge, Arthur C. "The Impact of the Second World War on Los Angeles" ''Pacific Historical Review'' 1994 63(3): 289-314. 0030-8684 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3640968  in JSTOR]

* Verge, Arthur C. "The Impact of the Second World War on Los Angeles" ''Pacific Historical Review'' 1994 63(3): 289–314. 0030-8684 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3640968  in JSTOR]

====Planning, environment and autos====

====Planning, environment and autos====

[[Image:Freeways.jpg|thumb|left|275px|an exaggerated freeway interchange]]

[[Image:Freeways.jpg|thumb|left|275px|an exaggerated freeway interchange]]

*  Bedolla, Lisa García. ''Fluid borders: Latino power, identity, and politics in Los Angeles‎'' (2005) 278 pages; [https://books.google.com/books?id=zkQmPRWzay8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:los+intitle:angeles&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=2004&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=2009&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]  

*  Bedolla, Lisa García. ''Fluid borders: Latino power, identity, and politics in Los Angeles‎'' (2005) 278 pages; [https://books.google.com/books?id=zkQmPRWzay8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:los+intitle:angeles&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=2004&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=2009&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]  

* Cannon, Lou. ''Official Negligence: How Rodney King and the Riots Changed Los Angeles and the LAPD.'' (1997). 698 pp. [http://www.questia-online-library.com/library/book/official-negligence-how-rodney-king-and-the-riots-changed-los-angeles-and-the-lapd-by-lou-cannon.jsp online edition]

* Cannon, Lou. ''Official Negligence: How Rodney King and the Riots Changed Los Angeles and the LAPD.'' (1997). 698 pp. [http://www.questia-online-library.com/library/book/official-negligence-how-rodney-king-and-the-riots-changed-los-angeles-and-the-lapd-by-lou-cannon.jsp online edition]

* Degraaf, Lawrence B. "The City Of Black Angels: Emergence of the Los Angeles Ghetto, 1890-1930". ''Pacific Historical Review'' 1970 39(3): 323-352. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3637655  in JSTOR]

* Degraaf, Lawrence B. "The City Of Black Angels: Emergence of the Los Angeles Ghetto, 1890-1930". ''Pacific Historical Review'' 1970 39(3): 323–352. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3637655  in JSTOR]

* Engh, Michael E. "'A Multiplicity and Diversity of Faiths': Religion's Impact on Los Angeles and the Urban West, 1890-1940," ''Western Historical Quarterly'' 1997 28(4): 462-492. 0043-3810 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/969882  in JSTOR]

* Engh, Michael E. "'A Multiplicity and Diversity of Faiths': Religion's Impact on Los Angeles and the Urban West, 1890-1940," ''Western Historical Quarterly'' 1997 28(4): 462–492. 0043-3810 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/969882  in JSTOR]

* Engh, Michael E. ''Frontier Faiths: Church, Temple, and Synagogue in Los Angeles, 1846-1888.'' (1992). 267 pp.

* Engh, Michael E. ''Frontier Faiths: Church, Temple, and Synagogue in Los Angeles, 1846-1888.'' (1992). 267 pp.

* Greenwood, Roberta S., ed. ''Down by the Station: Los Angeles Chinatown, 1880-1933.'' (1996). 207 pp.

* Greenwood, Roberta S., ed. ''Down by the Station: Los Angeles Chinatown, 1880-1933.'' (1996). 207 pp.