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'''Louis XVI''' (1754-1793) was the king of [[France]] (1774-1792) who lost his throne during the [[French Revolution]] and was later beheaded by the revolutionaries, as was his wife Queen [[Marie Antoinette]]. After a century of wars and financial mismanagement, France was still large, rich and powerful, but could no longer pay its bills, or the exorbitant costs of royalty and aristocracy. Louis XVI, a weak administrator, attempted some tax relief and reforms, but was frustrated by opposition by the upper class and judges.
'''Louis XVI''' (1754-1793) was the king of [[France]] (1774-1792) who lost his throne during the [[French Revolution]] and was later beheaded by the revolutionaries, as was his wife Queen [[Marie Antoinette]]. After a century of wars and financial mismanagement, France was still large, rich and powerful, but could no longer pay its bills, or the exorbitant costs of royalty and aristocracy. Louis XVI, a weak administrator, attempted some tax relief and reforms, but was frustrated by opposition by the upper class and judges.
Louis XVI provided critical financial aid to the Americans, and joined in their war against the [[United Kingdom]], 1778-83. This helped the Americans to win, but further drained the remaining credit of the French government. To raise money, in 1788 the king was forced to call into session a long-dormant representative governmental body called the Estates-General. On July 14, 1789, Parisians seized the notorious prison, the [[Bastille]]. The king attempted to escape, but was caught and imprisoned in 1791.
Louis XVI provided critical financial aid to the Americans, and joined in their war against the [[United Kingdom]], 1778–83. This helped the Americans to win, but further drained the remaining credit of the French government. To raise money, in 1788 the king was forced to call into session a long-dormant representative governmental body called the Estates-General. On July 14, 1789, Parisians seized the notorious prison, the [[Bastille]]. The king attempted to escape, but was caught and imprisoned in 1791.
In 1792, the new government declared France a republic and ordered the execution of Louis XVI by [[guillotine]] on January 21, 1793.
In 1792, the new government declared France a republic and ordered the execution of Louis XVI by [[guillotine]] on January 21, 1793.
Louis XVI's appointment of [[Turgot]] (1727–81) as controller-general of finances seemed to presage the beginning of a period of reform of the political, economic, and social structure of France. The reforms were too little and too late, as his reign marked the culmination of long-term financial difficulties which for decades had sapped the financial stability of the government.
Louis XVI's appointment of [[Turgot]] (1727–81) as controller-general of finances seemed to presage the beginning of a period of reform of the political, economic, and social structure of France. The reforms were too little and too late, as his reign marked the culmination of long-term financial difficulties which for decades had sapped the financial stability of the government.
A weak and vacillating leader, Louis XVI proved incapable of pursuing any consistent policy. A series of finance ministers worsened the fiscal crisis, which led to louder and more urgent demands by supporters of liberal reforms. Turgot’s program—"No bankruptcy, no increase in taxes, no borrowing, but economy"—demanded stringent reforms, so he abolished some monopolies, tried to reform the extraordinarily wasteful system of farming the taxes (i.e. having private persons collect them for a fee), and drastically cut spending; he managed to reduce part of the public debt. In 1774 his restoration of free circulation of grain inside the country antagonized the grain speculators; it was followed by a crop failure and widespread bread riots, as Turgot's popularity plunged. Turgot was ousted in 1776, and replaced by [[Jacques Necker]] as director of the treasury, who had the king's support.
A weak and vacillating leader, Louis XVI proved incapable of pursuing any consistent policy. A series of finance ministers worsened the fiscal crisis, which led to louder and more urgent demands by supporters of liberal reforms. Turgot's program—"No bankruptcy, no increase in taxes, no borrowing, but economy"—demanded stringent reforms, so he abolished some monopolies, tried to reform the extraordinarily wasteful system of farming the taxes (i.e. having private persons collect them for a fee), and drastically cut spending; he managed to reduce part of the public debt. In 1774 his restoration of free circulation of grain inside the country antagonized the grain speculators; it was followed by a crop failure and widespread bread riots, as Turgot's popularity plunged. Turgot was ousted in 1776, and replaced by [[Jacques Necker]] as director of the treasury, who had the king's support.
===American Revolution===
===American Revolution===
In spring 1776 Vergennes, the Foreign Secretary, saw an opportunity to humiliate arch-foe Britain by supporting the [[American Revolution|American revolt]]. Louis XVI was convinced by [[Benjamin Franklin]] to send financial aid and large quantities of munitions, sign a formal treaty of alliance in 1778, and go to war with Britain. Spain and the Netherlands joined the French. The Americans gained their independence, and the war ministry rebuilt the French army. However, the British sank the main French fleet in 1782 and France gained little from the Treaty of Paris (1783) that ended the war,<ref>France gained the colonies of Tobago and Senegal.</ref> except the war cost 1,066 million livres, financed by new loans at high interest (with no new taxes). Necker however concealed the crisis from the public (explaining only that ordinary revenues exceeded ordinary expenses, and not mentioning the loans.) After he was forced from office in 1781 new taxes were levied.<ref>On finance see William Doyle, ''Oxford History of the French Revolution'' (1989) p 67-74</ref>
In spring 1776 Vergennes, the Foreign Secretary, saw an opportunity to humiliate arch-foe Britain by supporting the [[American Revolution|American revolt]]. Louis XVI was convinced by [[Benjamin Franklin]] to send financial aid and large quantities of munitions, sign a formal treaty of alliance in 1778, and go to war with Britain. Spain and the Netherlands joined the French. The Americans gained their independence, and the war ministry rebuilt the French army. However, the British sank the main French fleet in 1782 and France gained little from the Treaty of Paris (1783) that ended the war,<ref>France gained the colonies of Tobago and Senegal.</ref> except the war cost 1,066 million livres, financed by new loans at high interest (with no new taxes). Necker however concealed the crisis from the public (explaining only that ordinary revenues exceeded ordinary expenses, and not mentioning the loans.) After he was forced from office in 1781 new taxes were levied.<ref>On finance see William Doyle, ''Oxford History of the French Revolution'' (1989) p 67-74</ref>
===Financial crises===
===Financial crises===
Necker's attempt to gain greater control over policy by courting public opinion was rebuffed at court, and he quit in May, 1781. Necker's successors Charles Alexandre de Calonne (1783–87) had to
borrow another 653 millions. Almost half the annual revenue was absorbed by debt-service, and the government borrowed against next year's anticipated revenue. France simply lacked a taxation system that would support its mounting debts, in contrast to Britain which successfully handled its debt. The powerful Parlement of Paris objected vehemently. To deal with the looming bankruptcy de Calonne proposed an elaborate set of new taxes. Louis XVI called an Assembly of Notables in 1787, but this body, generally hostile to reform, refused to raise taxes. Louis XVI alienated the notables by proclaiming his absolute powers to order a new loan; he tried to disable the parlements. This was no longer acceptable, and the parlements began defying the king. Even the clergy joined in.
borrow another 653 millions. Almost half the annual revenue was absorbed by debt-service, and the government borrowed against next year's anticipated revenue. France simply lacked a taxation system that would support its mounting debts, in contrast to Britain which successfully handled its debt. The powerful Parlement of Paris objected vehemently. To deal with the looming bankruptcy de Calonne proposed an elaborate set of new taxes. Louis XVI called an Assembly of Notables in 1787, but this body, generally hostile to reform, refused to raise taxes. Louis XVI alienated the notables by proclaiming his absolute powers to order a new loan; he tried to disable the parlements. This was no longer acceptable, and the parlements began defying the king. Even the clergy joined in.
===Escalating political crisis===
===Escalating political crisis===
==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
* Baecque, Antoine De. "From Royal Dignity to Republican [[Ascesis|Austerity]]: the Ritual for the Reception of Louis XVI in the French National Assembly (1789-1792)." ''Journal of Modern History'' 1994 66(4): 671-696. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2801%28199412%2966%3A4%3C671%3AFRDTRA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B in Jstor]
* Baecque, Antoine De. "From Royal Dignity to Republican [[Ascesis|Austerity]]: the Ritual for the Reception of Louis XVI in the French National Assembly (1789-1792)." ''Journal of Modern History'' 1994 66(4): 671–696. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2801%28199412%2966%3A4%3C671%3AFRDTRA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B in Jstor]
* Burley, Peter. "A Bankrupt Regime." ''History Today'' (Jan 1984) 34:36-42. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext in [[EBSCO]]
* Burley, Peter. "A Bankrupt Regime." ''History Today'' (Jan 1984) 34:36-42. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext in [[EBSCO]]
* Doyle, William. ''Origins of the French Revolution'' (3rd ed. 1999) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/origins-of-the-french-revolution-by-william-doyle.jsp online edition]
* Doyle, William. ''Origins of the French Revolution'' (3rd ed. 1999) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/origins-of-the-french-revolution-by-william-doyle.jsp online edition]
* Padover, Saul K. ''The Life and Death of Louis XVI'' (1939) [http://www.questia.com/read/3921322 online edition]
* Padover, Saul K. ''The Life and Death of Louis XVI'' (1939) [http://www.questia.com/read/3921322 online edition]
* Price, Munro. ''The Road from Versailles: Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and the Fall of the French Monarchy'' (2004) 425 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Road-Versailles-Antoinette-French-Monarchy/dp/0312326130/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1204094811&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]; also published as ''The Fall of the French Monarchy: Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette and the Baron de Breteuil.'' (2002)
* Price, Munro. ''The Road from Versailles: Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and the Fall of the French Monarchy'' (2004) 425 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Road-Versailles-Antoinette-French-Monarchy/dp/0312326130/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1204094811&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]; also published as ''The Fall of the French Monarchy: Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette and the Baron de Breteuil.'' (2002)
* Rigney, Ann. "Toward Varennes." ''New Literary History'' 1986 18(1): 77-98. Issn: 0028-6087; [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0028-6087%28198623%2918%3A1%3C77%3ATV%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in Jstor], on historiography
* Rigney, Ann. "Toward Varennes." ''New Literary History'' 1986 18(1): 77–98. Issn: 0028–6087; [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0028-6087%28198623%2918%3A1%3C77%3ATV%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in Jstor], on historiography
* Schama, Simon. ''Citizens. A Chronicle of the French Revolution'' (1989), highly readable narrative by scholar [https://www.amazon.com/Citizens-Simon-Schama/dp/0141017279/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197705186&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Schama, Simon. ''Citizens. A Chronicle of the French Revolution'' (1989), highly readable narrative by scholar [https://www.amazon.com/Citizens-Simon-Schama/dp/0141017279/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197705186&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Tackett, Timothy. ''When the King Took Flight.'' (2003). 270 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/When-King-Flight-Timothy-Tackett/dp/B000F4LMP8/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1204095353&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Tackett, Timothy. ''When the King Took Flight.'' (2003). 270 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/When-King-Flight-Timothy-Tackett/dp/B000F4LMP8/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1204095353&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]