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Line 1: − + + + + + + + + + − '''Homer''' (8th century B.C.) was a [[Greece|Greek]] poet and the author of the [[Iliad]] and the [[Odyssey]]. He was also supposedly blind. His name, in Greek, means "hostage", so there is some thought he may have been taken by the Greeks as a hostage during war. Little is known about his life beyond such speculations, but his poems have been recognized as two of the greatest epics in Western culture for thousands of years.+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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{{Infobox Biography
| subject_name = '''Homer''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] '''{{polytonic|Ὅμηρος}}''' ''{{transl|grc|ISO|Hómēros}}'')
| image_name = Homer_British_Museum.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| image_caption = Bust of Homer in the [[British Museum]]
| date_of_birth = ca. [[8th century BC]]
}}
'''Homer''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: {{polytonic|Ὅμηρος}}, ''{{transl|grc|ISO|Hómēros}}'') is the name given to the supposed author of the early [[Greek literature|Greek]] [[poem]]s the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]''. It is now generally believed that they were composed by illiterate ''[[aoidos|aoidoi]]'' (rhapsodes) in an [[oral tradition]] in the [[8th century BC|8th]] or [[7th century BC]], but it is a matter of debate among scholars whether a single ''aoidos'' is largely responsible for the poems as they stand. The name ''Homer'' is nevertheless often used, as a convention, by those who do not believe in singular authorship of the Homeric poems. Homer's works begin the [[Western Canon]] and are universally praised as brilliant and influential. By convention, their composition is also often taken to initiate the period of [[Classical Antiquity]].
==Identity and authorship==
{{main|Homeric Question}}
[[Image:William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) - Homer and his Guide (1874).jpg|thumb|right|Homer and His Guide, by [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]] (1825–1905)]]
Nothing is known about Homer's identity or life, and in fact there is no concrete evidence that he existed. Tradition holds that he was [[blindness|blind]], and the island of [[Chios]] and various [[Ionia]]n cities claim to be his birthplace.
In Greek, ''Homēros'' means "hostage." There is a theory that his name was back-extracted from the name of a society of poets called the [[Homeridae]], which literally means "of hostages," that is, descendants of prisoners of war. These men were not sent to war because their loyalty on the battlefield was suspect, and so they would not be killed in battles. Thus they were entrusted with remembering the area's stock of epic poetry, before the invention of [[literacy]] made it possible to make written records.
It has repeatedly been questioned whether the same poet was responsible for both the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey''. While many find it unlikely that the ''Odyssey'' was written by one person, others find that the epic is generally in the same writing style, and is too consistent to support the theory of multiple authors. The ''[[Batrachomyomachia]]'', Homeric hymns, and cyclic epics are generally agreed to be later than the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey''. Most accounts of the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" are generally accepted to be written by Homer.
Homer was even at one time credited with the entire [[Epic Cycle]], which included further poems on the [[Trojan War]] as well as the [[Thebes, Greece|Theban]] poems about [[Oedipus]] and his sons. Other works, such as the corpus of [[Homeric Hymns]], the comic mini-epic ''Batrachomyomachia'' ("The Frog-Mouse War," Βατραχομυομαχία), and the [[Margites]] were also attributed to him, but this is now believed to be unlikely.
Most scholars generally agree that the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' underwent a process of standardization and refinement out of older material beginning in the [[8th century BC]]. An important role in this standardization appears to have been played by the [[Athens|Athenian]] [[tyrant]] [[Hipparchus (son of Pisistratus)|Hipparchus]], who reformed the recitation of Homeric poetry at the [[Panathenaea|Panathenaic festival]]. Many [[classicist]]s hold that this reform must have involved the production of a [[canon (fiction)|canon]]ical written text.
Other scholars, however, maintain their belief in the reality of an actual Homer. So little is known or even guessed of his actual life, that a common joke has it that the poems "were not written by Homer, but by another man of the same name,"[http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/History/preface.htm#f4][http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/lit/literarystudies/LiteraryBlunders/chap7.html]. [[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler]] argued that a young Sicilian woman wrote the ''Odyssey'' (but not the ''Iliad''), an idea further pursued by [[Robert Graves]] in his novel ''[[Homer's Daughter]]''.
Most Classicists would agree that, whether or not there was ever such a composer as "Homer," the Homeric poems are the product of an oral tradition, a generations-old technique that was the collective inheritance of many singer-poets (''[[Aoidos|aoidoi]]''). An analysis of the structure and vocabulary of the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' shows that the poems consist of regular, repeating phrases; even entire verses repeat. Could the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' have been '''oral-formulaic''' poems, composed on the spot by the poet using a collection of memorized traditional verses and phases? [[Milman Parry]] and [[Albert Lord]] pointed out that such elaborate oral tradition, foreign to today's literate cultures, is typical of [[epic poetry]] in an exclusively oral culture. The crucial words are "oral" and "traditional." Parry started with "traditional." The repetitive chunks of language, he said, were inherited by the singer-poet from his predecessors, and they were useful to the poet in composition. He called these chunks of repetitive language "formulas."
Exactly when these poems would have taken on a fixed written form is subject to debate. The traditional solution is the "transcription hypothesis," wherein a non-literate "Homer" dictates his poem to a literate scribe between the 8th and 6th centuries. The [[Greek alphabet]] was introduced in the early 8th century, so that it is possible that Homer himself was of the first generation of rhapsodes that were also literate. More radical Homerists, such as [[Gregory Nagy]], contend that a canonical text of the Homeric poems as "scripture" did not exist until the [[Hellenistic]] period ([[3rd century BC|3rd]] to [[1st century BC]]).
==Ancient accounts of Homer==
{{main|Ancient accounts of Homer}}
Many passages in archaic and classical Greek poets and prose authors mention Homer or allude to him, and the eight preserved ''Lives'' of Homer purport to give the poet's birthplace and background. Modern scholarship, however, generally concludes that these accounts give no solid evidence on which to base a theory of Homer's identity.<ref>Lefkowitz, pp. 12-24.</ref>
==Homeric studies==
{{main|Homeric scholarship}}
[[Image:Homer world map-en.svg|thumb|right|280px|Reconstitution of the world described by the ''[[Odyssey]]'']]
The study of Homer is one of the very oldest topics in all scholarship or science, and goes back to antiquity. Purely in terms of quantity it is one of the largest of all literary sub-disciplines: the annual publication output rivals that on [[Shakespeare]]. The aims and achievements of Homeric studies have changed over the course of the millennia; in the last few centuries they have revolved around the process by which the Homeric poems came into existence and were transmitted down to us, first orally, and later in writing.
Some of the main trends in modern Homeric scholarship have been, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, ''Analysis'' and ''Unitarianism'' (see [[Homeric Question|Homeric question]]), which were schools of thought that emphasized on the one hand the inconsistencies, on the other the artistic unity, in Homer; and in the 20th century and later ''Oral Theory'', which is the study of the mechanisms and effects of oral transmission, and ''Neoanalysis'', which is the study of the relationship between Homer and other early epic material.
==Homeric dialect==
{{main|Homeric Greek}}
The language used by Homer is an archaic version of [[Ionic Greek]], with admixtures from certain other dialects, such as [[Aeolic Greek]]. It later served as the basis of Epic Greek, the language of [[epic poetry]], typically in [[dactylic hexameter]].
==Homeric style==
{{POV-section}}
{{Unreferenced|date=May 2007}}
The cardinal qualities of the style of Homer have been well articulated by [[Matthew Arnold]]: "the translator of Homer," he says, "should above all be penetrated by a sense of the four qualities of his author: that he is eminently rapid; that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his [[syntax]] and in his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and finally, that he is eminently noble" (''On Translating Homer'', page 9).
The peculiar rapidity of Homer is due in great measure to his use of the [[hexameter]] verse. It is characteristic of early literature that the evolution of the thought, or the grammatical form of the sentence, is guided by the structure of the verse; and the correspondence which consequently obtains between the rhythm and the syntax, the thought being given out in lengths, as it were, and these again divided by tolerably uniform pauses produces a swift flowing movement, such as is rarely found when the periods have been constructed without direct reference to the [[metre]]. That Homer possesses this rapidity without falling into the corresponding faults, that is, without becoming either fluctuant or monotonous, is perhaps the best proof of his unequalled poetical skill. The plainness and directness, both of thought and of expression, which characterize Homer were doubtless qualities of his age; But the author of the ''[[Iliad]]'' (similar to [[Voltaire]], to whom [[Matthew Arnold|Arnold]] happily compares him) must have possessed this gift in a surpassing degree. The ''[[Odyssey]]'' is in this respect perceptibly below the level of the ''Iliad''.
[[Image:Homer Statue Munich.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Homer outside the Bavarian State Library in [[Munich]].]]
Rapidity or ease of movement, plainness of expression, and plainness of thought are not the distinguishing qualities of the great epic poets, [[Virgil]], [[Dante]], and [[John Milton|Milton]] (Dante in fact mentions Homer in ''[[Divine Comedy#Inferno|Inferno]]'' IV,88, ranking him as 'Poet sovereign' just above [[Horace]], [[Ovid]] and [[Virgil]]). On the contrary, they belong rather to the humbler epico-lyrical school for which Homer has been so often claimed. The proof that Homer does not belong to that school, and that his [[poetry]] is not in any true sense [[ballad]]-poetry is furnished by the higher artistic structure of his [[poems]], and, as regards style by the fourth of the qualities distinguished by [[Matthew Arnold|Arnold]], the quality of nobleness. It is his noble and powerful style, sustained through every change of idea and subject, that finally separates Homer from all forms of ballad-poetry and popular [[Epic poetry|epic]].
It may be recognized that there is an historical connection between the ''Iliad'' and Odyssey and the ballad literature which undoubtedly preceded them in [[Greece]]. It may even be admitted that the swift-flowing movement, and the simplicity of thought and style, which are greatly admired in the ''Iliad'', are an inheritance from the earlier lays, such as the reference to [[Achilles]] and [[Patroclus]] singing to the lyre in their tent; even the [[hexameter]] verse may be assigned to them. But between earlier days and the time of Homer we must place the cultivation of [[epic poetry]] as an [[art]]. The pre-Homeric days doubtless furnished the elements of such poetry, but they must have been refined somewhat before they gave way to poems like the ''Iliad'' and ''[[Odyssey]]''.
Like the French epics, such as the [[Chanson de Roland]], Homeric poetry is indigenous, and by the ease of movement and its resulting simplicity, is distinguishable from the works of Dante, Milton, and Virgil. It is also distinguished from the works of these artists by the comparative absence of underlying motives or sentiment. In Virgil's poetry a sense of the greatness of [[Roman Empire|Rome]] and [[Italy]] is the leading motive of a passionate rhetoric, partly veiled by the chosen delicacy of his language. Dante and Milton are still more faithful exponents of the [[religion]] and [[politics]] of their time. Even the French [[epics]] display sentiments of fear and hatred of the [[Saracens]]; but in Homer's works, the interest is purely dramatic. There is no strong antipathy of race or religion; the war turns on no political event; the capture of [[Troy]] lies outside the range of the ''Iliad'', and even the heroes portrayed are not comparable to the chief national heroes of Greece. So far as can be seen, the chief interest in Homer's works is that of human feeling and emotion, and of [[drama]] - indeed, Homer's works are oft referred to as 'dramas'.
==History and the Iliad==
:''See main article [[Historicity of the Iliad]].''
[[Image:Beginning Iliad.svg|thumb|right|280px|The first verses of the ''Iliad'']]
Another significant question regards the possible historical basis of the poems. The commentaries on the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' written in the [[Hellenistic]] period began exploring the textual inconsistencies of the poems. Modern classicists continue the tradition.
The excavations of [[Heinrich Schliemann]] in the late [[19th century]] began to provide evidence to scholars that there was a historical basis for the [[Trojan War]]. Research (pioneered by the aforementioned Parry and Lord) into oral epics in [[Serbo-Croatian]] and [[Turkic languages]] began to convince scholars that long poems could be preserved with consistency by oral cultures until someone bothered to write them down. The [[decipherment]] of [[Linear B]] in the [[1950s]] by [[Michael Ventris]] (and others) convinced others of a linguistic continuity between [[13th century BC]] [[Mycenae]]an writings and the poems attributed to Homer.
It is probable, therefore, that the story of the [[Trojan War]] as reflected in the Homeric poems derives from a tradition of epic poetry founded on a war which actually took place. However, it is crucial not to underestimate the creative and transforming power of subsequent tradition: for instance, [[Achilles]], the most important character of the [[Iliad]], associated with [[Thessaly]], has probably been added to a story where the attackers of [[Troy]] were from the [[Peloponnese]]
==Hero cult==
[[Image:Apotheosis of homer.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Apotheosis]] of Homer, by Archelaus of Priene. Marble relief, possibly of the [[3rd century BC]], now in the [[British Museum]].]]
In the Hellenistic period, Homer was the subject of a hero cult in several cities. A shrine devoted to Homer or ''Homereion'' was built in [[Alexandria]] by [[Ptolemy IV Philopator]] in the late [[3rd century BC]]. This shrine is described in [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]]'s [[3rd century]] work ''Varia Historia''. He described how Ptolemy had "placed in a circle around the statue [of Homer] all the cities who laid claim to Homer" and mentions a painting of the poet by the artist [[Galaton]], which apparently depicted Homer in the aspect of [[Oceanus]] as the source of all poetry.
A marble relief, found in Italy but thought to have been sculpted in [[Egypt]], depicts the [[apotheosis]] of Homer. It shows Ptolemy and his wife/sister [[Arsinoe III]] standing beside a seated Homer. The poet is shown flanked by figures from the ''Odyssey'' and ''Iliad'', with the nine [[Muses]] standing above them and a procession of worshippers approaching an altar, believed to represent the Alexandrine Homereion. [[Apollo]], god of music and poetry, also appears, along with a female figure tentatively identified as [[Mnemosyne]], the mother of the Muses. [[Zeus]], the king of the gods, presides over the proceedings. The relief demonstrates vividly how the Greeks considered Homer not just a great poet, but the divinely inspired source of all literature.<ref>Morgan, Llewelyn, 1999. ''Patterns of Redemption in Virgil's Georgics'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 30.</ref>
Homereia also stood at [[Chios]], [[Ephesus]] and [[Smyrna]], which were among the city-states that claimed to be the birthplace of Homer. [[Strabo]] (14.1.37) records a Homeric temple in Smyrna with an ancient ''[[xoanon]]'' or cult statue of the poet. He also mentions sacrifices carried out to Homer by the inhabitants of [[Argos]], presumably at another Homereion.<ref>Zanker, Paul, 1996. ''The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity'', Alan Shapiro, trans. (Berkeley: University of California Press).</ref>
==Publication history==
In [[late antiquity]] knowledge of Greek declined in Latin-speaking western Europe, and along with it knowledge of Homer's poems. It is not until the fifteenth century that Homer's work began to be read once more in Italy. The first arguably modern edition appeared in 1488.
==Notes==
<references />
==Selected bibliography==
===Editions===
(texts in Homeric Greek)
*[[Demetrius Chalcondylas]] ''editio princeps'', Florence, [[1488]]
*the [[Aldine editions]] (1504 and 1517)
*Th. Ridel, Strassbourg, ca. 1572, 1588 and 1592.
*Wolf (Halle, 1794-1795; Leipzig, 1804 1807)
*Spitzner (Gotha, 1832-1836)
*Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858)
*La Roche (Odyssey, 1867-1868; Iliad, 1873-1876, both at Leipzig)
*Ludwich (Odyssey, Leipzig, 1889-1891; Iliad, 2 vols., 1901 and 1907)
*W. Leaf (Iliad, London, 1886-1888; 2nd ed. 1900-1902)
*W. Walter Merry and James Riddell (Odyssey i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886)
*Monro (Odyssey xiii.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901)
*Monro and Allen (Iliad), and Allen (Odyssey, 1908, Oxford).
*D.B. Monro and T.W. Allen 1917-1920, ''Homeri Opera'' (5 volumes: ''Iliad'' = 3rd edition, ''Odyssey'' = 2nd edition), Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814528-4, ISBN 0-19-814529-2, ISBN 0-19-814531-4, ISBN 0-19-814532-2, ISBN 0-19-814534-9
*H. van Thiel 1991, ''Homeri Odyssea'', Hildesheim. ISBN 3-487-09458-4, 1996, ''Homeri Ilias'', Hildesheim. ISBN 3-487-09459-2
*M.L. West 1998-2000, ''Homeri Ilias'' (2 volumes), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-71431-9, ISBN 3-598-71435-1
*P. von der Mühll 1993, ''Homeri Odyssea'', Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-71432-7
*[[Wikisource:el:ΙΛΙΑΣ|Ilias in Wikisource]]
===Interlinear translations===
*[[John Jackson]]. ''Homer: Iliad Books 1-12, & 13-24'', ed. by Monro, 3rd Ed.: © Oxford Univ. Press 1902, parsing and English definitions © 2005 [http://www.handheldclassics.com Free eBook for Palm Handheld]
*[[John Jackson]]. ''Homer: Odyssey'' © Oxford Univ. Press 1902, parsing and English definitions © 2006 [http://www.handheldclassics.com Free eBook for Palm Handheld]
===Partial List of English translations===
This is a partial list of translations into English of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. For a more complete list see [[English Translations of Homer]].
*[[George Chapman]] (1559–1634)
**''[[The Odyssey]]'' ([[1614]]). [http://www.bartleby.com/111/ Free eBook] at Bartleby.com
**''Chapman's Homer: The Iliad'', Princeton University Press (1998) ISBN 0-691-00236-3.
*[[Thomas Hobbes]] (1588–1679)
**''The Iliads and Odysses of Homer'' (1675) [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Book.php?recordID=0051.10 Free eBook].
*[[Alexander Pope]] (1688–1744)
**''[[The Iliad]]'' (1715-1720). [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6130 Free eBook] at [[Project Gutenberg]]
**''The Odyssey'', with [[William Broome]] and [[Elijah Fenton]] (1725-1726), The Heritage Press (1942) {{ASIN|B000BAX1AK}}; Easton Press (1978) {{ASIN|B000BTSKL6}}; Wildside Press (2002) ISBN 1-58715-674-1. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3160 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg
*[[William Cowper]] (1731–1800)
**''The Iliad of Homer Translated into English Blank Verse'' (1791) [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16452 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg.
*[[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby]] (1799–1869)
**''The Iliad'' (1864) [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6150 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg.
*[[Samuel Butler (novelist)|Samuel Butler]] (1835–1902)
**''The Iliad'', W.J. Black (1942) {{ASIN|B0007HYRDM}}; AMS Press (1968) {{ASIN|B0006C6IQ2}} [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2199 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg
**''The Odyssey'', W.J. Black (1944) {{ASIN|B0007HYREQ}} {{ASIN|B000BSH1OE}}; AMS Press (1968) {{ASIN|B0006C6IPS}}; IndyPublish.com (2001) ISBN 1-4043-2238-8 [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1727 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg
*[[Andrew Lang]] (1844–1912)
**''The Iliad'', with [[Walter Leaf]] and S. H. Myers (Macmillan, 1883) {{ASIN|B000BOG4PK}}; Peter Smith Publisher Inc (1966) ISBN 0-8049-0115-5. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3059 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg
*[[Samuel Henry Butcher]] (1850–1910) and [[Andrew Lang]] (1844–1912)
**''The Odyssey'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1728 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg.
*[[William Henry Denham Rouse]] (1863–1950)
**''The Odyssey'', Signet Classics (1999) ISBN 0-451-52736-4
*[[Augustus Taber Murray]] (1866-1940)
**''Homer: Iliad'', 2 vols., revised by William F. Wyatt, [[Loeb Classical Library]], Harvard University Press (1999).
**''Homer: Odyssey'', 2 vols., revised by George E. Dimock, [[Loeb Classical Library]], Harvard University Press (1995).
*T.E. Shaw ([[T.E. Lawrence]]) (1888–1935)
**''The Odyssey of Homer'', London, Walker, Merton, Rogers (1932)
*[[Richmond Lattimore]] (1906–1984)
**''The Iliad of Homer'', University Of Chicago Press (1961) ISBN 0-226-46940-9
**''The Odyssey of Homer'', Harper Perennial Modern Classics, reprint edition (1999) ISBN 0-06-093195-7
*[[Robert Fitzgerald]] (1910–1985)
**''The Iliad'', Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2004) ISBN 0-374-52905-1
**''The Odyssey'', Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1998) ISBN 0-374-52574-9
*[[Robert Fagles]] (b. 1933)
**''The Iliad'', Penguin Classics (1998) ISBN 0-14-027536-3
**''The Odyssey'', Penguin Classics (1999) ISBN 0-14-026886-3
*[[Stanley Lombardo]] (b. 1943)
**''Iliad'', Hackett (1997) ISBN 0-87220-352-2
**''Odyssey'', Hackett (2000) ISBN 0-87220-484-7
**''Iliad'', (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-08-3
**''Odyssey'', (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-06-7
**''The Essential Homer'', (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-12-1
**''The Essential Iliad'', (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-10-5
*[[Martin Hammond]] (b. 1944)
**''The Iliad: A New Prose Translation'', Penguin Classics (1988) ISBN 0-14-044444-0
**''Homer: The Odyssey'', Duckworth (2000) ISBN 0-7156-2958-1
===General works on Homer===
* J. Latacz 2004, ''Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery'', Oxford, ISBN 0-19-926308-6; 5th updated and expanded edition, Leipzig 2005 (in Spanish 2003 ISBN 84-233-3487-2, modern Greek 2005 ISBN 960-16-1557-1)
*Robert Fowler (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Homer'', CUP, Cambridge 2004. ISBN 0-521-01246-5
*I. Morris and B. Powell 1997, ''A New Companion to Homer'', Leiden. ISBN 90-04-09989-1
*A.J.B. Wace and F.H. Stubbings 1962, ''A Companion to Homer'', London. ISBN 0-333-07113-1
===Influential readings and interpretations===
*E. Auerbach 1953, ''Mimesis'', Princeton (orig. publ. in German, 1946, Bern), chapter 1. ISBN 0-691-11336-X
*M.W. Edwards 1987, ''Homer, Poet of the Iliad'', Baltimore. ISBN 0-8018-3329-9
*B. Fenik 1974, ''Studies in the Odyssey'', Wiesbaden ('Hermes' Einzelschriften 30).
*I.J.F. de Jong 1987, ''Narrators and Focalizers'', Amsterdam/Bristol. ISBN 1-85399-658-0
*G. Nagy 1979, ''The Best of the Achaeans'', Baltimore. ISBN 0-8018-6015-6
===Commentaries===
*''Iliad'':
**P.V. Jones (ed.) 2003, ''Homer's Iliad. A Commentary on Three Translations'', London. ISBN 1-85399-657-2
**[[G. S. Kirk]] (gen. ed.) 1985-1993, ''The Iliad: A Commentary'' (6 volumes), Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-28171-7, ISBN 0-521-28172-5, ISBN 0-521-28173-3, ISBN 0-521-28174-1, ISBN 0-521-31208-6, ISBN 0-521-31209-4
**[[Joachim Latacz|J. Latacz]] (gen. ed.) 2002-, ''Homers Ilias. Gesamtkommentar. Auf der Grundlage der Ausgabe von Ameis-Hentze-Cauer (1868-1913)'' (2 volumes published so far, of an estimated 15), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-74307-6, ISBN 3-598-74304-1
**N. Postlethwaite (ed.) 2000, ''Homer's Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore'', Exeter. ISBN 0-85989-684-6
**M.W. Willcock (ed.) 1976, ''A Companion to the Iliad'', Chicago. ISBN 0-226-89855-5
*''Odyssey'':
**A. Heubeck (gen. ed.) 1990-1993, ''A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey'' (3 volumes; orig. publ. 1981-1987 in Italian), Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814747-3, ISBN 0-19-872144-7, ISBN 0-19-814953-0
**P. Jones (ed.) 1988, ''Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary based on the English Translation of Richmond Lattimore'', Bristol. ISBN 1-85399-038-8
**I.J.F. de Jong (ed.) 2001, ''A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey'', Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-46844-2
===Trends in Homeric scholarship===
;"Classical" analysis
*A. Heubeck 1974, ''Die homerische Frage'', Darmstadt. ISBN 3-534-03864-9
*R. Merkelbach 1969, ''Untersuchungen zur Odyssee'' (2nd edition), Munich. ISBN 3-406-03242-7
*D. Page 1955, ''The Homeric Odyssey'', Oxford.
*U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff 1916, ''Die Ilias und Homer'', Berlin.
*F.A. Wolf 1795, ''Prolegomena ad Homerum'', Halle. Published in English translation 1988, Princeton. ISBN 0-691-10247-3
;Neoanalysis
*M.E. Clark 1986, "Neoanalysis: a bibliographical review," ''Classical World'' 79.6: 379-94.
*J. Griffin 1977, "The epic cycle and the uniqueness of Homer," ''Journal of Hellenic Studies'' 97: 39-53.
*J.T. Kakridis 1949, ''Homeric Researches'', London. ISBN 0-8240-7757-1
*W. Kullmann 1960, ''Die Quellen der Ilias (Troischer Sagenkreis)'', Wiesbaden. ISBN 3-515-00235-9
;Homer and oral tradition
*E. Bakker 1997, ''Poetry in Speech: Orality and Homeric Discourse'', Ithaca NY. ISBN 0-8014-3295-2
*J.M. Foley 1999, ''Homer's Traditional Art'', University Park PA. ISBN 0-271-01870-4
*G.S. Kirk 1976, ''Homer and the Oral Tradition'', Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-21309-6
*A.B. Lord 1960, ''The Singer of Tales'', Cambridge MA. ISBN 0-674-00283-0
*M. Parry 1971, ''The Making of Homeric Verse'', Oxford. ISBN 0-19-520560-X
*B. B. Powell, 1991, "Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet," ISBN 0-521-58907-X
===Dating the Homeric poems===
*R. Janko 1982, ''Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns'', Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-23869-2
==See also==
*[[Catalogue of Ships]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Homeros}}
{{Wikisource_author}}
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/browse/authors/h#a705 Works by Homer] at [[Project Gutenberg]].
*[http://www.gpc.edu/~shale/humanities/literature/world_literature/homer.html Collection of Homer-related links]
*[http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-language.asp Greek lessons based on Homer]
*[http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/lessons/pharr.asp Clyde Pharr, Homer and the study of Greek]
*[http://madeinatlantis.com/athens/homer.htm Homer]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V3GmNMbuMbc Homer's Odyssey in 15 seconds]
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|NAME=Homer
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|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Author
|DATE OF BIRTH=ca. [[8th century BC]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=
|DATE OF DEATH=
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}}
[[Category:Oral epic poets]]
[[Category:Blind people]]
[[Category:Homer|*]]
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[[Category:Mythology]]
[[Category:Ancient Greeks|Homer]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek poets|Homer]]
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