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'''Samhain''', Old Irish ''Samain,'' was a Celtic holiday prominent in Irish mythology. It was observed on November 1. This is also the date of [[All Saints' Day]], a closely associated holiday. Popular history associates Samhain with [[Halloween]], although Halloween is observed on October 31 and arose separately in 18th century Scotland. In modern Gaelic, ''Samhain'' refers to the month of November.<ref>Mark, Colin, ''The Gaelic–English Dictionary'' (2003).</ref>

[[File:De Ricci Coligny 1926 detail month14.jpeg|thumb|150px|The Coligny calendar is a Celtic calendar found in the French town of Coligny in 1897]]'''Samhain''', Old Irish ''Samain,'' was a Celtic holiday prominent in Irish mythology. It was observed on November 1. This is also the date of [[All Saints' Day]], a closely associated holiday. Popular history associates Samhain with [[Halloween]], although Halloween is observed on October 31 and arose separately in 18th century Scotland. In modern Gaelic, ''Samhain'' refers to the month of November.<ref>Mark, Colin, ''The Gaelic–English Dictionary'' (2003).</ref>

The Celtic year was divided into halves by the holidays Samhain and Beltaine (May 1). These dates were once part of a Celtic lunisolar calendar. Even in the earliest surviving accounts, both dates have already transferred to the [[Julian calendar]].

The Celtic year was divided into halves by the holidays Samhain and Beltaine (May 1). These dates were once part of a Celtic lunisolar calendar. Even in the earliest surviving accounts, both dates have already transferred to the [[Julian calendar]].

== Origins ==

== Origins ==

Garrett Olmsted of Cornell University argues that Samhain was originally observed on the winter solstice (December 21) and gradually shifted to the November 1 as a result of centuries of calendar drift.<ref name="Olmsted"/> It is sometimes suggested, especially by neo-pagans, that the Celts intended to select a date halfway between the equinox and the solstice. By this logic, November 7 is the "real" date of Samhain.

Garrett Olmsted of Cornell University argues that Samhain was originally observed on the winter solstice (December 21) and gradually shifted to the November 1 after centuries of calendar drift.<ref name="Olmsted"/> It is sometimes suggested, especially by neo-pagans, that the Celts intended to select a date halfway between the equinox and the solstice. By this logic, November 7 is the "real" date of Samhain.

Samhain may have existed for a some time as a marker for the first day of winter before there was a festival. ''Regula Coenobialis of St Columban'', written in AD 540‐615, is the oldest source to describe November 1 as the first day of winter. The earliest mention of Samhain is found in the ninth century text ''Felire Oengusso.'' It spells the word as "Samain." November 1 was Christianized as All Saints Day in the eighth century.<ref>“Rule 7: … up to the beginning of winter, that is, the first of November.” ''Regula Coenobialis of St Columban''.<br/>“Lonán, Colmán, Cronán with their bright sunny following the hosts of Hilarius sure multitudinous ennoble stormy All‐Saints’ day [Samain].” ''Felire Oengusso.''</ref><ref name="Morgan">Morgan, Bernard, "[https://www.academia.edu/30803038/The_semantic_shift_of_Samain_from_Summer_to_Winter The semantic shift of Samain from Summer to Winter]".</ref>

Samhain may have existed for a some time as a marker for the first day of winter before there was a festival. ''Regula Coenobialis of St Columban'', written in AD 540‐615, is the oldest source to describe November 1 as the first day of winter. The earliest mention of Samhain is found in the ninth century text ''Felire Oengusso.'' It spells the word as "Samain." November 1 was Christianized as All Saints Day in the eighth century.<ref>“Rule 7: … up to the beginning of winter, that is, the first of November.” ''Regula Coenobialis of St Columban''.<br/>“Lonán, Colmán, Cronán with their bright sunny following the hosts of Hilarius sure multitudinous ennoble stormy All‐Saints’ day [Samain].” ''Felire Oengusso.''</ref><ref name="Morgan">Morgan, Bernard, "[https://www.academia.edu/30803038/The_semantic_shift_of_Samain_from_Summer_to_Winter The semantic shift of Samain from Summer to Winter]".</ref>

== The Celtic calendar ==

== The Celtic calendar ==

''Cormac's Glossary'' was started by the king-bishop of Munster around AD 900. Some entries were added centuries later. It gives ''Imbol'' (February 1) as the first day of spring, ''Beltaine'' (May 1) the first day of summer, ''Lugnasad'' (August 1) the first day of fall, and ''Samhain'' (November 1) the first day of winter.<ref>Beltaine is identified with ''biltine'' (May Day). The entry on November notes that it is the winter month following Samhain: "'''Gamuin''', i.e. in the month of Gam, i.e., after Samuin; whence gamnach, i.e. winter‐engorged teats, i.e., milk milked in the month of winter, i.e. in the season of winter." (''[https://archive.org/details/sanaschormaicco00stokgoog/page/n40/mode/2up Sanas Chormaic. Cormac's glossary]''

''Cormac's Glossary'' gives ''Imbol'' (February 1) as the first day of spring, ''Beltaine'' (May 1) the first day of summer, ''Lugnasad'' (August 1) the first day of fall, and ''Samhain'' (November 1) the first day of winter. This glossary was started by the king-bishop of Munster around AD 900. Some entries were added centuries later.<ref>Beltaine is identified with ''biltine'' (May Day). The entry on November notes that it is the winter month following Samhain: "'''Gamuin''', i.e. in the month of Gam, i.e., after Samuin; whence gamnach, i.e. winter‐engorged teats, i.e., milk milked in the month of winter, i.e. in the season of winter." (''[https://archive.org/details/sanaschormaicco00stokgoog/page/n40/mode/2up Sanas Chormaic. Cormac's glossary]''

by Cormac, O'Donovan, John, ed. and tr; Stokes, Whitley, 1868)</ref><ref name="Olmsted">Olmsted, Garrett (2009). ''The Coligny Calendar: the Implications for Gaulish and Irish Festival Dates''.</ref>  

by Cormac, O'Donovan, John, ed. and tr; Stokes, Whitley, 1868)</ref><ref name="Olmsted">Olmsted, Garrett (2009). ''The Coligny Calendar: the Implications for Gaulish and Irish Festival Dates''.</ref>  

With a leap day every five years, the Coligny calendar gives the length of a solar year as 365.20 days. Since the true length is 365.2422 days, the calendar drifted by one day every 23.7 years.<ref name="Olmsted"/>

With a leap day every five years, the Coligny calendar gives the length of a solar year as 365.20 days. Since the true length is 365.2422 days, the calendar drifted by one day every 23.7 years.<ref name="Olmsted"/>

The amount of drift can be used to estimate the age of a calendar. According to Pliny, Celtic months started on the sixth day of the lunar cycle in the period 120-100 BC. As the lunar cycle drifted by one day every 199 years, this suggests that the calendar had been operating without correction for about 1,000 years.<ref name="Olmsted"/>

The amount of drift can be used to estimate the age of a calendar. According to Pliny, Celtic months started on the sixth day of the lunar cycle in the period 120-100 BC. As the lunar cycle drifted by one day every 199 years, this suggests that the calendar had been operating without correction for 975 years.<ref name="Olmsted"/>

If Samhain was once on the winter solstice, it could have gradually moved to its current location due to calendar drift. Assuming Samhain and Beltaine transferred to the Julian calendar around AD 200, that gives us 1,300 years of solar calendar drift (1100 BC to AD 200), or 50.6 (1300/23.7) days worth of drift. November 1 is 51 days before the solstice on December 21. That this rough calculation yields the desired date exactly is surely an artifact. But placing the start of a season on the first of the month has obvious advantages in terms of convenience.

If Samhain was once on the winter solstice, it could have gradually moved to its current location due to calendar drift. Assuming Samhain and Beltaine transferred to the Julian calendar around AD 200, that gives us 1,300 years of solar calendar drift (1100 BC to AD 200), or 50.6 (1300/23.7) days worth of drift. November 1 is 51 days before the solstice on December 21. That this rough calculation yields the desired date exactly is surely an artifact. But placing the start of a season on the first of the month has obvious advantages in terms of convenience.