| | In 1893 and 1894, Alfred Binet (1857-1911) conducted perhaps the first psychological studies into chess. He investigated the cognitive facilities of chess masters who could play blindfold chess. He hypothesized that chess depends upon the phenomenological qualities of visual memory. He found that only chess masters were able to play chess successfully without seeing the board and intermediate players found it impossible to play a game of blindfold chess. Binet found that experience, imagination, and memories of abstract and concrete varieties were required in master chess.<ref>[http://billwall.phpwebhosting.com/articles/memory_and_chess.htm#:~:text=The%20ability%20to%20recall%20a,the%20more%20than%2020%20pieces. ''Memory and Chess''] by Bill Wall</ref>}} | | In 1893 and 1894, Alfred Binet (1857-1911) conducted perhaps the first psychological studies into chess. He investigated the cognitive facilities of chess masters who could play blindfold chess. He hypothesized that chess depends upon the phenomenological qualities of visual memory. He found that only chess masters were able to play chess successfully without seeing the board and intermediate players found it impossible to play a game of blindfold chess. Binet found that experience, imagination, and memories of abstract and concrete varieties were required in master chess.<ref>[http://billwall.phpwebhosting.com/articles/memory_and_chess.htm#:~:text=The%20ability%20to%20recall%20a,the%20more%20than%2020%20pieces. ''Memory and Chess''] by Bill Wall</ref>}} |
| | *[https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1994-08388-001 ''Role of high-level knowledge in memory for chess positions''] by Cooke, N. J., Atlas, R. S., Lane, D. M., & Berger, R. C., ''The American Journal of Psychology'', 106(3), 321–351. https://doi.org/10.2307/1423181 | | *[https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1994-08388-001 ''Role of high-level knowledge in memory for chess positions''] by Cooke, N. J., Atlas, R. S., Lane, D. M., & Berger, R. C., ''The American Journal of Psychology'', 106(3), 321–351. https://doi.org/10.2307/1423181 |
| | *[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9677761/ ''Expert memory: a comparison of four theories''] by F. Gobet, ''Cognition''. 1998 May;66(2):115-52. doi: 10.1016/s0010-0277(98)00020-1. | | *[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9677761/ ''Expert memory: a comparison of four theories''] by F. Gobet, ''Cognition''. 1998 May;66(2):115-52. doi: 10.1016/s0010-0277(98)00020-1. |