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Line 214: − − In 1987 more than four hundred persons, mostly Iranian Shiite pilgrims and about 85 Saudis and security personnel, were killed during a demonstration against the "Enemies of Islam" (basically, the United States and Israel) in front of the Grand Mosque.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20091029204548/http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Hajj.htm#ref32 Mecca massacre]</ref> Iranian [[hajj]] pilgrims traditionally make up the largest single contingent from any single country.<ref>US Saudi Arabia Diplomatic and Political Cooperation Handbook, USA International Business Publications, 2007, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ob37QAVkGrgC&q=lunar%2BHijaz#v=snippet&q=lunar%2BHijaz&f=false p. 178.]</ref> Details about the incident and causes remain murky, with the official Saudi version contradicted by Iran's own investigation. [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] condemned the "vile and ungodly Wahhabis" as "lackeys of the United States” and called for the overthrow of the House of Saud.<ref><small>"Iran convened an “International Congress on Safeguarding the Sanctity and Security of the Great Mosque,” under the auspices of the ministry of Islamic guidance and the foreign ministry. Rafsanjani, in addressing the three hundred participants from 36 countries, called for the “liberation” of Mecca and the establishment of an “Islamic International” which would govern Mecca as a free city."</small> Kramer, ''Khomeini’s Messengers''.</ref> Line 222:
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→Modern state
In June 1982, King Khalid died, and Fahd became King and Prime Minister in a smooth transition. Another half-brother, Prince Abdullah, Commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Fahd's brother, Prince Sultan, the Minister of Defense and Aviation, became Second Deputy Prime Minister. Under King Fahd, the Saudi economy adjusted to sharply lower oil revenues resulting from declining global oil prices. Saudi Arabia supported neutral shipping in the Gulf during periods of the [[Iran-Iraq war]] and aided Iraq's war-strained economy. King Fahd played a major part in bringing about the August 1988 cease-fire between Iraq and Iran and in organizing and strengthening the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a group of six Arabian Gulf states dedicated to fostering regional economic cooperation and peaceful development.
In June 1982, King Khalid died, and Fahd became King and Prime Minister in a smooth transition. Another half-brother, Prince Abdullah, Commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Fahd's brother, Prince Sultan, the Minister of Defense and Aviation, became Second Deputy Prime Minister. Under King Fahd, the Saudi economy adjusted to sharply lower oil revenues resulting from declining global oil prices. Saudi Arabia supported neutral shipping in the Gulf during periods of the [[Iran-Iraq war]] and aided Iraq's war-strained economy. King Fahd played a major part in bringing about the August 1988 cease-fire between Iraq and Iran and in organizing and strengthening the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a group of six Arabian Gulf states dedicated to fostering regional economic cooperation and peaceful development.
In 1990-91, King Fahd played a key role before and during the [[Gulf war]]. King Fahd's action also consolidated the coalition of forces against [[Iraq]] and helped define the tone of the operation as a multilateral effort to reestablish the sovereignty and territorial integrity of [[Kuwait]]. Acting as a rallying point and personal spokesman for the coalition, King Fahd helped bring together his nation's GCC allies, Western allies, and Arab allies, as well as nonaligned nations from Africa and the emerging democracies of eastern Europe. He used his influence as Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques to persuade other Arab and Islamic nations to join the coalition.
In 1990-91, King Fahd played a key role before and during the [[Gulf war]]. King Fahd's action also consolidated the coalition of forces against [[Iraq]] and helped define the tone of the operation as a multilateral effort to reestablish the sovereignty and territorial integrity of [[Kuwait]]. Acting as a rallying point and personal spokesman for the coalition, King Fahd helped bring together his nation's GCC allies, Western allies, and Arab allies, as well as nonaligned nations from Africa and the emerging democracies of eastern Europe. He used his influence as Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques to persuade other Arab and Islamic nations to join the coalition.
In January 2015 King Abdullah died at the age of 90. His half-brother Prince Salman was appointed as successor.<ref>https://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/powerful-saudi-arabia-king-abdullah-dies-age-90</ref>
In January 2015 King Abdullah died at the age of 90. His half-brother Prince Salman was appointed as successor.<ref>https://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/powerful-saudi-arabia-king-abdullah-dies-age-90</ref>
===Attack on the Grand Mosque, 1979===
The Grand Mosque in Mecca (home of the [[Kaaba]]) was briefly taken over for a period of weeks by an obscure group led by a poorly educated ''Bedouin'' named Juhayman<ref>Review of ''[http://www.fsmitha.com/review/trofimov2.html The Siege of Mecca: The Forgotten Uprising in Islam's Holiest Shrine and the Birth of al Qaeda]'', Yaroslav Trofimov, Doubleday, 2007.</ref> whose theology was an early manifestation of modern violent [[Salafi]]sm. These believers did not embrace many aspects of modern society. They opposed identity cards and passports because these denote loyalty to an entity other than [[Allah]]. They were against [[Idolatry|images of living beings]], not only on television and in photography but also on coins. The only previous violent encounter was when a group of young activists were caught smashing shop display windows showing female mannequins in the center of Medina in 1965. And they had peculiar views on ritual practices setting them apart from other religious communities and the religious establishment.
The incident revealed the Saudi state was thoroughly unprepared to deal with a challenge to its legitimacy from conservative religious believers.<ref>Thomas Hegghammer and Stephane Lacroix. [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=862184 Rejectionist Islamism in Saudi Arabia: The Story of Juhayman al-Utaybi Revisited.] International Journal of Middle East Studies, February 2007, pp 103-122, Cambridge University Press.</ref> After three days of fruitless negotiations, the Saudi's turned to external, non-Islamic "crusader" forces to dislodge the jihadis. Non-Muslims are not allowed within the city of Mecca, and bloodshed on the grounds of the temple is considered virtually an unpardonable sin; yet the Saudi state and its reigning religious establishment deputized, through a fatwa, the French Special Operations Forces to retake the mosque.<ref>Many details of the Mosque takeover remain officially classified Saudi state secrets. [http://www.ahlu-sunnah.com/attachment.php?attachmentid=1667&d=1280248308 The Makkan Siege: In Defense of Juhayman], a collection of internet reports on the siege and excerpts of Juhayman's letters. Juhayman is considered to have provided more inspiration to the the modern jihadist movement than Osama bin Laden who left virtually no religious writings behind.</ref><ref>Peterson, J.E. “[http://www.jepeterson.net/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/APBN-003_Saudi_Arabia_Internal_Security_Incidents_Since_1979.pdf Saudi Arabia: Internal Security Incidents Since 1979.]” Arabian Peninsula Background Note, No. APBN-003. Published on www.JEPeterson.net, January 2004; updated 31 December 2007.</ref>
Official reports say that 255 fanatics, troops and pilgrims were killed, while 560 were injured. The rebels who survived were imprisoned or beheaded, with reports claiming 63 beheadings.
The respected imam Muhammad Nasir al-Din al-Albani, who abhorred violence, condemned Juhayman's attack; however one of his students, Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi, fell under the influence of Juhayman's thought. In coming years Maqdisi further developed the idea that the ruling Saudi clan were apostate Muslim infidels along with a rejection of the very idea of a [[nation state]].<ref>Maqdisi's ''Community of Abraham'' is a further expansion of Juhayman's ''Clarification Concerning the Community of the One God Designated as Guide of the People''; [https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0674049640 Awakening Islam], Stephane Lacroix & George Holoch, Harvard University Press, Aug 15, 2011, Page 101.</ref>
The year 1979 is also cited as the point in time when a member of the wealthy bin Laden clan (who made their fortune building stuff) began to develop his political ideology and one central piece of said ideology is the "humiliation" of French forces having to bail out the "Muslim" Saudi Arabia. [[Osama bin Laden]] later went to Afghanistan to throw out [[Soviet Union|another bunch]] of "infidels" from "Muslim land" and the Taliban regime his ilk helped establish gave him shelter and a safe haven, even though he was a wanted terrorist.
===1987 Mecca massacre===
In 1987 more than four hundred persons, mostly Iranian Shi'ite pilgrims and about 85 Saudis and security personal, were killed during a demonstration against the "Enemies of Islam" (basically, the United States and Israel) in front of the Grand Mosque.<ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20091029204548/http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Hajj.htm#ref32 </ref> Iranian [[hajj]] pilgrims traditionally make up the largest single contingent from any single country.<ref>US Saudi Arabia Diplomatic and Political Cooperation Handbook, USA International Business Publications, 2007, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ob37QAVkGrgC&q=lunar%2BHijaz#v=snippet&q=lunar%2BHijaz&f=false p. 178.]</ref> Details about the incident and causes remain murky, with the official Saudi version contradicted by Iran's own investigation. <ref>The Muslim World League convened a conference in Mecca in October 1987 condemning Iran for the violence: Iran’s government--a government “accustomed to terrorism and a thirst for Muslim blood”--“solely bears the responsibility for the outrage in God’s holy mosque.” The conference endorsed the measures taken by the Saudi authorities “to quell the sedition and to contain the fires of wickedness.” Kramer, ''Khomeini’s Messengers''.</ref><ref>http://www.shiachat.com/forum/topic/234966843-saudi-propaganda-of-iranian-attack-on-kaabah-1987/ </ref>
Shock over violence just outside the Grand Mosque again sparked a debate across the Muslim world about the Saudis dual role as American ally and Custodian of the Two Holy Custodian of the Islamic Holy Places.<ref>http://introducingislam.org/info/carnage/carnage.php </ref> [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] condemned the "vile and ungodly Wahhabis" as "lackeys of the United States” and called for the overthrow of the House of Saud.<ref><small>"Iran convened an “International Congress on Safeguarding the Sanctity and Security of the Great Mosque,” under the auspices of the ministry of Islamic guidance and the foreign ministry. Rafsanjani, in addressing the three hundred participants from 36 countries, called for the “liberation” of Mecca and the establishment of an “Islamic International” which would govern Mecca as a free city."</small> Kramer, ''Khomeini’s Messengers''.</ref> The Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC) formed a group known as Hezbollah al-Hejaz, more commonly known as Saudi Hezbollah, for this purpose.<ref>https://www.aei.org/publication/saudi-arabias-forgotten-shiite-spring/ </ref>
It was in this atmosphere of anti-Saudi and anti-U.S. sentiment throughout the Muslim world that [[Saddam Hussein]] made his calculated gamble to challenge Saudi Arabia and the United States over Kuwait in 1990.<ref>
Political Islam, Edited by Fredric Volpi, Routledge, [https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/wiki/b7907/attachments/b87f0/week6required1.pdf?sessionID=be1325d37a7c5f7b99f39de6da779933c272d74d p. 5-6 pdf], ''et seqq''.</ref>
==Notable Saudi Arabians==
==Notable Saudi Arabians==