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Soviet History Lecture: Background & Terms (view source)

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The Soviet Union existed for 75 years, from 1917-1991.
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It started as a backwards semi-feudal monarchy and ended its life as a global superpower which then within a decade was in shambles.
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Within one lifetime it grew, beat back the Nazis in the Second World War, was the first nation to space, and collapsed.
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Contextualizing this intercontinental empire, based on a rigid political, historical, and economic ideology, involves a great deal of terms to understand and master.
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There are relevant terms to '''Communist Theory''', which are separate from terms related to the '''Soviet Union''' that can be confusing.
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The Soviet Union was the political entity joining together of the following republics. Many confuse the Soviet Union as simply being Russia, and while Russia was the dominant republic in the union of Soviet countries, it is not accurate to say Russia is the heir to the Soviet Union.
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{| class="wikitable"
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|+ Republics of the Soviet Union
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! Republic
 +
! Capital
 +
! Year Joined the Soviet Union
 +
! Year Left the Soviet Union
 +
|-
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| Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR)
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| Moscow
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| 1922
 +
| 1991
 +
|-
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| Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Kyiv
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| 1922
 +
| 1991
 +
|-
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| Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Minsk
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| 1922
 +
| 1991
 +
|-
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| Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (dissolved into three republics in 1936)
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| Tbilisi
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| 1922
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| 1936
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|-
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| Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Yerevan
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| 1936
 +
| 1991
 +
|-
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| Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Baku
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| 1936
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| 1991
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|-
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| Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Tbilisi
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| 1936
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| 1991
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|-
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| Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Tashkent
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| 1924
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| 1991
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|-
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| Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Ashgabat
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| 1924
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| 1991
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|-
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| Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Dushanbe
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| 1929
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| 1991
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|-
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| Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Almaty
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| 1936
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| 1991
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|-
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| Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Bishkek (formerly Frunze)
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| 1936
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| 1991
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|-
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| Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Riga
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| 1940
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| 1991
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|-
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| Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Vilnius
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| 1940
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| 1991
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|-
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| Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Tallinn
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| 1940
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| 1991
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|-
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| Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic
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| Chișinău
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| 1940
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| 1991
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|-
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| Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic (later downgraded to an autonomous republic in 1956)
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| Petrozavodsk
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| 1940
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| 1956
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|}
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This political union was led by a Politburo, also known as a Central Committee, that governed the state's affairs. Another point of confusion is that the Communist Party was a political party, but after taking control all competing parties were outlawed so it was a one-party state. Not every person in the Soviet Union was a Communist Party member, even though it was a one-party state. The Communist Party and the Soviet Union are not the same thing. The Soviet Union was a government, even though its leaders were all from the same party, enforced by law.
    
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The Soviet Union came out of the Russian Revolution. The Soviets were a brand of Communists known as Bolsheviks. In the early months of the Russian Revolution, there were a variety of Socialist factions that were competing for power. The Bolsheviks eventually seized power, primarily from the Mensheviks.
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{| class="wikitable"
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|+ Socialist Factions in the Early Soviet Union
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! Faction
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! Key Leaders
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! Key Beliefs
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! Historical Impact
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|-
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| Bolsheviks
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| Vladimir Lenin
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| Advocated for a centralized, professional revolutionary party; supported immediate revolution to establish a dictatorship of the proletariat.
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| Seized power during the October Revolution of 1917 and became the dominant faction, forming the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
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|-
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| Mensheviks
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| Julius Martov, Pavel Axelrod
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| Supported a mass-based party with democratic procedures; advocated for gradual reform and alliances with liberal groups.
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| Opposed the October Revolution; marginalized and repressed after the Bolshevik victory.
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|-
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| Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)
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| Viktor Chernov, Alexander Kerensky (Right SRs)
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| Focused on peasant interests and land redistribution; divided into Right SRs (parliamentary approach) and Left SRs (initially allied with the Bolsheviks).
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| Right SRs were repressed by the Bolsheviks; Left SRs were purged after opposing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
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|-
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| Anarchists
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| Nestor Makhno
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| Opposed centralized state power; advocated for a stateless, classless society based on voluntary cooperation and direct democracy.
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| The "Black Army" fought against both the White and Red Armies but was defeated by the Bolsheviks.
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|-
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| Left Communists
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| Nikolai Bukharin (initially), Karl Radek
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| Criticized the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk; supported permanent revolution and opposed concessions to capitalism, such as the NEP.
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| Some reconciled with the Bolsheviks, but many were purged during Stalin's rise to power.
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|-
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| Left Opposition
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| Leon Trotsky
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| Criticized the bureaucratization of the Soviet state; called for greater party democracy and international revolution.
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| Defeated in the 1920s; Trotsky was exiled and later assassinated; many members were purged during Stalin’s reign.
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|-
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| Bund (General Jewish Workers’ Union)
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| Vladimir Medem
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| Advocated for Jewish cultural and political autonomy within a socialist framework; fought against anti-Semitism.
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| Suppressed by the Bolsheviks; many members were forced to assimilate or flee.
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|-
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| Kadets and Moderate SRs
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| Pavel Milyukov (Kadets), Right SR leadership
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| Advocated for a parliamentary democracy and gradual reforms.
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| Played a role in the Provisional Government but were overthrown by the October Revolution.
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|}
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The Cities and Urban centers of the Soviet Union.
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{| class="wikitable"
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|+ Top 15 Cities in the Soviet Union
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! Rank
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! City
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! Modern Name (if different)
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! Republic
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! Significance
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|-
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| 1
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| Moscow
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| Moscow
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| Russian SFSR
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| Capital of the Soviet Union; political, cultural, and economic center.
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|-
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| 2
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| Leningrad
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| Saint Petersburg
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| Russian SFSR
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| Former imperial capital; key cultural hub and a major center during World War II (Siege of Leningrad).
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|-
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| 3
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| Kyiv
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| Kyiv
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| Ukrainian SSR
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| Industrial and cultural center of Ukraine; significant in Soviet military and scientific industries.
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|-
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| 4
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| Minsk
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| Minsk
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| Belarusian SSR
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| Capital of Belarus; a key hub for industry and reconstruction after World War II.
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|-
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| 5
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| Tashkent
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| Tashkent
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| Uzbek SSR
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| Largest city in Central Asia; economic and cultural hub of the region.
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|-
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| 6
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| Baku
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| Baku
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| Azerbaijani SSR
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| Center of the Soviet oil industry; key strategic location in the Caucasus.
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|-
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| 7
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| Kharkiv
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| Kharkiv
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| Ukrainian SSR
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| Important industrial center, known for its engineering and weapons production.
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|-
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| 8
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| Novosibirsk
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| Novosibirsk
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| Russian SFSR
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| Largest city in Siberia; a major scientific, industrial, and transportation hub.
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|-
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| 9
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| Tbilisi
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| Tbilisi
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| Georgian SSR
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| Cultural and political center of the Caucasus region; capital of Georgia.
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|-
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| 10
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| Yerevan
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| Yerevan
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| Armenian SSR
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| Capital of Armenia; significant for its scientific institutions and cultural importance.
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|-
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| 11
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| Riga
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| Riga
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| Latvian SSR
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| Capital of Latvia; key port city on the Baltic Sea and cultural center of the Baltics.
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|-
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| 12
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| Vilnius
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| Vilnius
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| Lithuanian SSR
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| Capital of Lithuania; known for its historical architecture and academic institutions.
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|-
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| 13
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| Tallinn
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| Tallinn
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| Estonian SSR
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| Capital of Estonia; important for its Baltic port and historical ties to Western Europe.
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|-
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| 14
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| Sverdlovsk
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| Yekaterinburg
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| Russian SFSR
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| Industrial center in the Urals; important for military production and heavy industry.
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|-
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| 15
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| Sevastopol
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| Sevastopol
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| Ukrainian SSR (Crimean Peninsula)
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| Key naval base for the Soviet Black Sea Fleet; significant for its role in military history.
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|}
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The Soviet Union was also often involved in military conflicts. Even though the spread of Communism was often through subversion and insurgent tactics, the country found itself in a variety of conflicts that had a high cost in lives and funds.
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{| class="wikitable"
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|+ Major Conflicts Involving the Soviet Union
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! Conflict
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! Years
 +
! Opponent(s)
 +
! Soviet Casualties (Estimated)
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! Total Casualties (Estimated)
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|-
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| Russian Civil War
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| 1917–1922
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| White Army, foreign intervention forces, nationalist movements
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| 1,200,000 (military and civilian)
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| 7,000,000–12,000,000
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|-
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| Polish-Soviet War
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| 1919–1921
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| Poland
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| 60,000–80,000
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| 200,000
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|-
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| Soviet Invasion of Georgia
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| 1921
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| Democratic Republic of Georgia
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| 5,000
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| 20,000
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|-
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| Winter War
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| 1939–1940
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| Finland
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| 126,875 (military)
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| 200,000–300,000
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|-
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| Soviet Invasion of the Baltic States
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| 1940
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| Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania
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| Minimal
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| 50,000 (deportations and resistance)
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|-
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| Soviet-Japanese Border Conflicts
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| 1932–1945
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| Japan
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| 10,000
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| 50,000+
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|-
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| World War II (Eastern Front)
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| 1941–1945
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| Nazi Germany and Axis powers
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| 8,700,000–11,400,000 (military) 
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27,000,000+ (including civilians)
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| 70,000,000+ (global)
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|-
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| Soviet-Japanese War
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| 1945
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| Japan
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| 12,000
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| 84,000–300,000 (Japanese, including POWs)
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|-
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| Korean War (limited Soviet involvement)
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| 1950–1953
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| United States, South Korea, UN coalition
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| 300+ (pilots and advisors)
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| 3,000,000+ (total war casualties)
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|-
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| Hungarian Revolution
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| 1956
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| Hungarian revolutionaries
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| 700
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| 2,500+ (including Hungarian civilians)
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|-
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| Prague Spring Invasion
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| 1968
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| Czechoslovakia
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| 108
 +
| 137+
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|-
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| Soviet-Chinese Border Conflict
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| 1969
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| China
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| 60
 +
| 200–300
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|-
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| Soviet War in Afghanistan
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| 1979–1989
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| Afghan Mujahideen (backed by U.S., Pakistan, and others)
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| 14,500 (military)
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| 1,000,000–2,000,000 (including civilians)
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|-
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| Georgian Civil War (internal support for separatists)
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| 1991–1993
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| Georgian nationalists
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| Unknown (Russian support role)
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| 20,000+ (including civilians)
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|-
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| First Nagorno-Karabakh War (Soviet collapse phase)
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| 1988–1994
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| Armenia vs. Azerbaijan (Soviet Union as intermediary before collapse)
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| Minimal Soviet forces
 +
| 28,000–40,000
 +
|}
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We have also created a [[Essay: Timeline of Major Events of the Soviet Union: 1917-1991|Timeline of events in the Soviet Union]].
    
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