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Line 154: − + + − '''Caesar’s methods during his consulship alarmed many senators and earned him lasting hostility within the aristocracy'''. [[Plutarch]] and [[Suetonius]] record how Caesar relied on organised street supporters to force his measures through the [[Forum]], and that violence broke out when opponents attempted to obstruct him. [[Cassius Dio]] is even more specific when he says that these measures even extended to "surrounding the houses" of the [[Senator|Senators]] and threatening them with violence if they did not support the desired legeslative outcomes.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], 38.6–7</ref> We have already seen how Bibulus’ fasces were broken, tribunes were assaulted, and senators were pushed aside as Caesar pressed his agrarian law to a vote. By bypassing the Senate, ignoring Bibulus’ declarations of unfavourable omens, and using his position as [[Pontifex Maximus]] to neutralise religious objections, Caesar appeared to many of his peers as a man willing to overturn constitutional norms to achieve his aims. These actions created deep resentment among the conservative faction and laid the foundations for the political confrontations that would follow in his proconsulship and eventual civil war.+ − Caesar next secured the ratification of [[Pompey|Pompey’s]] eastern settlements and enacted financial reforms favourable to the ''equestrian publicani'', fulfilling the political aims of his Triumvirate partners. These measures strengthened Caesar’s alliance with [[Pompey]] and [[Crassus]] and demonstrated the effectiveness of their combined influence. At the same time, Caesar introduced laws against extortion in the provinces (perhaps a manifestation of his father's convictions), reformed judicial procedures, and enforced public accountability on magistrates, further increasing his popularity among the plebs.+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − + + + + + + + + + +
→Consulship (59 BC): Significan rework
In '''59 BC''' Julius Caesar entered the Consulship with the full backing of the [[First Triumvirate]], enabling him to overcome the senatorial deadlock that had paralysed [[Rome]] in the preceding years. Although the office was traditionally [[Collegiate|collegiate]], Caesar’s counterpart and co-consul [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]] aligned himself with the conservative faction and attempted to obstruct Caesar’s legislative agenda. The year quickly became defined by political confrontation, with Caesar relying on popular support and the influence of [[Pompey]] and [[Crassus]] to advance his measures.
In '''59 BC''' Julius Caesar entered the Consulship with the full backing of the [[First Triumvirate]], enabling him to overcome the senatorial deadlock that had paralysed [[Rome]] in the preceding years. Although the office was traditionally [[Collegiate|collegiate]], Caesar’s counterpart and co-consul [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]] aligned himself with the conservative faction and attempted to obstruct Caesar’s legislative agenda. The year quickly became defined by political confrontation, with Caesar relying on popular support and the influence of [[Pompey]] and [[Crassus]] to advance his measures.
Caesar’s first major act was the agrarian law granting land to [[Pompey|Pompey’s]] veterans and to impoverished citizens of [[Rome]]. The [[Senate]] resisted, but Caesar brought the proposal before the popular assembly, where it passed with overwhelming support. [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus|Bibulus]] attempted to halt proceedings by declaring ''obnuntiatio'' (unfavourable omens)<ref>The irony should escape none how [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus|Bibulus]] was using omens to overthrow legislation when his opponent as [[Pontifex Maximus]] was the highest religious authority in the land, charged with interpreting omens amongst other things<br>[[Plutarch]], ''Caesar'', 14</ref>, yet the crowd in rage near slew him, breaking his [[Fasces|fasces]] and drove him from the [[Forum]]; Consequentially [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus|Bibulus]] in fear for his life withdrew from public theatre for the remainder of the year issuing edicts from his house. His absence led the Romans to joke in triumph that the year was “the consulship of Julius ''and'' Caesar,”<ref>Suetonius, ''Divus Julius'', 20.2<br>''“the people used to call it not the consulship of Bibulus and Caesar, but of Julius and Caesar.”''</ref><ref>Dio (38.6)</ref> reflecting Caesar’s effective sole control of the magistracy.
===Caesar’s Agrarian Law (''lex agraria'')===
Caesar’s first major act as consul was the lex agraria, a land‑distribution law granting property to [[Pompey|Pompey’s]] veterans and to impoverished citizens of Rome. The [[Senate]] fiercely resisted, but Caesar bypassed their obstruction and brought the proposal before the popular assembly, where it passed with overwhelming support.
[[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]] attempted to halt the proceedings by declaring obnuntiatio (unfavourable omens), an act made all the more ironic because Caesar, as [[Pontifex Maximus]], was the highest religious authority in [[Rome]] and legally responsible for interpreting such signs.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'', 14</ref> The crowd, enraged at [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus|Bibulus’]] obstruction of this extremely popular measure, nearly slew him, broke his [[Faces|fasces]], and drove him from the [[Forum]]. Fearing for his life, [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus|Bibulus]] withdrew from public activity for the remainder of the year and issued edicts from his house. His absence led Romans to joke triumphantly that the year was “the consulship of ''Julius'' and ''Caesar'',”<ref>Suetonius, ''Divus Julius'', 20.2</ref><ref>Dio, 38.6</ref> reflecting Caesar’s effective sole control of the magistracy of the [[Consul|consulship]].
Caesar’s methods during his [[Consul|consulship]] alarmed many [[Senator|senators]] and earned him lasting hostility within the [[Aristocratocracy||aristocracy]]. [[Plutarch]] and [[Suetonius]] record that Caesar relied on organised street supporters to force his measures through the [[Forum]], and violence broke out whenever opponents attempted to obstruct him. [[Cassius Dio]] is even more explicit, stating that Caesar’s faction “surrounded the houses” of senators and threatened them with violence if they did not support the desired legislative outcomes.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], 38.6–7</ref> Bibulus’ fasces were broken, tribunes were assaulted, and senators were pushed aside as Caesar pressed his agrarian law to a vote.
By bypassing the Senate, ignoring [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus|Bibulus'’]] declarations of unfavourable omens, and using his position as [[Pontifex Maximus]] to neutralise religious objections, Caesar appeared to many of his peers as a man willing to overturn constitutional norms to achieve his aims. '''These actions created deep resentment among the conservative faction and laid the foundations for the political confrontations that would follow in his proconsulship, the civil war and ultimately in his assassination.'''
===Caesar’s Grain Law (''lex frumentaria'')===
Caesar’s reform of the grain distribution was welcomed enthusiastically by Rome’s poor, who loved Julius for it. Corruption had caused the grain rolls to swell with fraudulent entries, including the names of dead citizens whose portions were collected by administrators, and politically connected clients who received double allocations. The numbers illustrate the scale of the abuse:
<center>
''''320,000 registered recipients prior to the reforms reduced to → 150,000 recipients after the reforms.'''
</center>
Corrupt officials collected grain on behalf of dead entrants and sold the surplus for personal profit. Non‑citizens were enrolled, and favoured individuals received double portions. Beyond this, the supply itself was irregular, and distribution days often saw insufficient quantities, leaving bread lines sent home empty‑handed and hungry.
Caesar ordered a complete audit of the lists and reduced the number of registered recipients by more than half, removing duplicates, non‑citizens, and the names of the dead. Although less grain was now issued overall, it was distributed honestly and reliably, giving the poor a regular supply for the first time in years. This anti‑corruption measure greatly increased Caesar’s popularity among the urban masses, who saw him as the only magistrate willing to confront abuses they had long suspected or experienced directly.
These reforms, however, struck at the income streams of the elite who had been managing the racket, turning them into bitter political enemies. Like his agrarian laws, Caesar’s grain law was fiercely resisted, and the same tactics of obstruction, popular agitation, and senatorial hostility were deployed against him—further deepening the political divide that would shape the conflicts of his later career.
In modern terms, Caesar’s grain law functioned as a state‑funded social security programme. By guaranteeing a regular, publicly financed supply of grain to Rome’s poorest citizens, the *lex frumentaria* provided a basic welfare safety net comparable to contemporary social assistance systems. Although limited to citizens and focused on food security rather than monetary payments, it represented the closest institution the late Republic possessed to a formalised social welfare scheme. As with noted modern security systems, this class of recipients yielded their support and vote to whoever maintained their security. Theirfore they loved Caesar as one who had grown up among them in Subura and acted in their interests.
===Crassus’ Financial Reforms===
====Lex de publicanis====
In addition to the agrarian and grain laws, Caesar advanced legislation favourable to the interests of [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]] and the [[Equestrian Order|equestrian order]]. Crassus had made much of his vast fortune through state‑backed enterprises, particularly tax‑farming companies and public works contracts. It was therefore logical that he pushed Caesar to table measures benefiting government contractors. The most significant of these was the ''lex de publicanis'', a law that renegotiated the tax‑farming contracts in the province of Asia. The publicani had overbid on these contracts and faced severe financial losses, but the ''lex de publicanis'' allowed them to withdraw their bids and resubmit them under more favourable terms.<ref>Dio, 38.7</ref>
This effectively rescued the equestrian tax‑farming companies from bankruptcy and greatly strengthened the political influence of both Caesar and Crassus. The equestrians, grateful for their intervention, became firm supporters of the [[First Triumvirate|Triumvirate]]. The Senate, however, viewed the measure as an abuse of consular authority and resented Caesar for empowering a wealthy non‑senatorial class at their expense.
====Judicial Reforms Favouring the Equestrian Order====
Caesar also supported judicial reforms that increased equestrian influence in the courts, further alienating the conservative aristocracy. These measures weakened senatorial control over juries and strengthened the position of the equestrian class in legal proceedings, particularly in cases involving provincial administration and financial disputes. Combined with the agrarian and grain laws, these reforms ensured that Caesar satisfied all three members of the First Triumvirate—Pompey, Crassus, and himself—while deepening the political divide that defined the year.
====Ratification of Pompey’s Eastern Settlements and Anti‑Corruption Laws====
Caesar next secured the ratification of [[Pompey|Pompey’s]] eastern settlements and enacted additional financial measures favourable to the ''equestrian publicani'', fulfilling the political aims of his Triumvirate partners. These actions strengthened Caesar’s alliance with both [[Pompey]] and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]] and demonstrated the effectiveness of their combined influence.
At the same time, Caesar introduced laws against extortion in the provinces, reformed judicial procedures, and enforced public accountability on magistrates. These anti‑corruption measures increased his popularity among the plebs while provoking disaffection among those who profited from provincial exploitation. Caesar’s legislative programme thus simultaneously advanced the interests of his allies and positioned him as a champion of administrative reform.
====Lex Vatinia====
The most consequential achievement of Caesar’s consulship was the securing of his provincial command. Through the ''lex Vatinia'', he obtained a five‑year proconsulship over [[Cisalpine Gaul]], [[Illyricum]], and later [[Transalpine Gaul]]. This command granted him multiple legions, independent imperium, and the opportunity for military expansion. It was the foundation upon which his later conquests—and ultimately his rise to unmatched power—would be built.
The most consequential achievement of Caesar’s consulship was the securing of his provincial command. Through the ''lex Vatinia'', he obtained a five‑year proconsulship over [[Cisalpine Gaul]], [[Illyricum]], and later [[Transalpine Gaul]]. This command granted him multiple legions, independent imperium, and the opportunity for military expansion. It was the foundation upon which his later conquests—and ultimately his rise to unmatched power—would be built.
Caesar concluded his consulship by arranging the marriage of his daughter Julia to Pompey, strengthening the personal bond that helped maintain harmony within the Triumvirate. With his legislation enacted, his alliances secured, and his provincial command granted, Caesar left Rome at the end of his term to begin his proconsulship in Gaul, the stage upon which his military genius would soon become legendary.
====Solidification by Marriage====
A crucial element in stabilising the [[First Triumvirate]] during Caesar’s consulship was the creation of a network of family alliances that bound the three men together more securely than political agreements alone could achieve. Caesar understood that Roman politics rested not merely on legislation and patronage, but on the personal ties created through marriage, which carried immense social and emotional weight among the aristocracy.
Earlier in the year Caesar arranged the betrothal of Crassus’ son, [[Publius Licinius Crassus]], to the daughter of [[Mucia Tertia]] from her earlier marriage. Although this step-daughter had once been part of [[Pompey|Pompey’s]] household during his marriage to Mucia, she was not Pompey’s biological child, and the match created no personal difficulty for him. The marriage strengthened Crassus’ aristocratic standing and linked him socially to Pompey’s circle, reinforcing unity within the Triumvirate.
Caesar then completed the most important alliance of all: the marriage of his own daughter [[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)|Julia]] to [[Pompey]]. The betrothal was arranged during the consulship, but the marriage itself was finalised as Caesar prepared to depart for his provincial command. Unlike Pompey’s earlier marriage to [[Mucia Tertia]], which had been politically useful but emotionally indifferent, [[Pompey]] apparently genuinely loved Julia, and ancient writers emphasise the affection and harmony of their union. This personal bond transformed the political partnership between Caesar and [[Pompey]] into a family alliance, greatly strengthening the cohesion of the [[First Triumvirate|Triumvirate]].
Through these marriages Caesar ensured that the members of the Triumvirate were bound together by personal ties as well as political interests. Although only Pompey and Caesar became true kin through Julia’s marriage, the additional match between Crassus’ son and Mucia’s daughter linked Crassus socially to Pompey’s former household and reinforced the cooperative spirit of the alliance. These arrangements made political defection more costly and helped stabilise the Triumvirate during the conclusion of a year of intense conflict. By the end of his consulship Caesar had secured the ongoing support of both Pompey and Crassus, enabling him to depart for his proconsulship in Gaul with the backing of the two most powerful men in the Republic.
==WORK IN PROGRESS / REDUNDANT==.
==WORK IN PROGRESS / REDUNDANT==.