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Saudi Arabia (view source)

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==People==

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Saudi Arabia's 2007 population was estimated to be about 27.6 million, including about 5.6 million resident foreigners. Until the 1960s, most of the population was nomadic or seminomadic; due to rapid economic and urban growth, more than 95% of the population now is settled. Some cities and oases have densities of more than 1,000 people per square kilometer (2,600 per sq. mi). Saudi Arabia has undergone a population boom of sorts in the last few decades.

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Saudi Arabia's 2007 population was estimated to be about 27.6 million, including about 5.6 million resident foreigners. Until the 1960s, most of the population was nomadic or seminomadic; due to rapid economic and urban growth, more than 95% of the population now is settled. Some cities and oases have densities of more than 1,000 people per square kilometer (2,600 per sq. mi). Saudi Arabia has undergone a population boom of sorts in the last few decades.

Saudi Arabia is known as the birthplace of [[Islam]], which in the century following [[Muhammad]]'s death in 632 A.D. spread west to [[Spain]] and east to [[India]]. Islam obliges all Muslims to make the [[Hajj]], or pilgrimage to [[Mecca]], at least once during their lifetime if they are able to do so. The cultural environment in Saudi Arabia is highly conservative; the country adheres to a strict interpretation of Islamic religious law (Shari'a). Cultural presentations must conform to narrowly defined standards of ethics. Men and women are not permitted to attend public events together and are segregated in the workplace.

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Most Saudis are ethnically [[Arab]]. Some are of mixed ethnic origin and are descended from Turks, Iranians, Indonesians, Indians, Africans, and others, most of whom immigrated as pilgrims and reside in the Hijaz region along the Red Sea coast. Many Arabs from nearby countries are employed in the kingdom. There also are significant numbers of Asian expatriates mostly from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and the Philippines. There are fewer than 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia.

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Most Saudis are ethnically [[Arab]]. Some are of mixed ethnic origin and are descended from Turks, Iranians, Indonesians, Indians, Africans, and others, most of whom immigrated as pilgrims and reside in the Hijaz region along the Red Sea coast. Many Arabs from nearby countries are employed in the kingdom. There also are significant numbers of Asian expatriates, mostly from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and the Philippines. There are fewer than 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia.

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===Recent politics===

[[File:Temple1.jpg|right|350px|thumb|The "Mosque" on Epstein island decorated with artifacts from the [[Kaaba]]. [[Occult]] ritual abuse is said to have taken place. The entrance has a locking bar from the outside to keep people inside.]]

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[[Jeffrey Epstein]] obtained sacred artifacts and pieces of the Kiswa—the holy black-and-gold cloth covering the Kaaba in [[Mecca]]—to decorate a private island building that he and his associates referred to as a "mosque". The "Mosque" built on Epstein's private [[Caribbean]] island, Little Saint Jame is a blue-and-white-striped structure topped with a golden dome. While initially planning a Turkish bathhouse or music room, Epstein regularly called the structure his "mosque" in private correspondence and discussions with hired artists.<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2026/04/29/world/americas/jeffrey-epstein-islam-mosque-island-kaaba-sex-offender-kiswa.html</ref>

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[[Jeffrey Epstein]] obtained sacred artifacts and pieces of the Kiswa—the holy black-and-gold cloth covering the Kaaba in [[Mecca]]—to decorate a private island building that he and his associates referred to as a "mosque". The "Mosque" built on Epstein's private [[Caribbean]] island, Little Saint Jame, is a blue-and-white-striped structure topped with a golden dome. While initially planning a Turkish bathhouse or music room, Epstein regularly called the structure his "mosque" in private correspondence and discussions with hired artists.<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2026/04/29/world/americas/jeffrey-epstein-islam-mosque-island-kaaba-sex-offender-kiswa.html</ref>

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The Mecca artifacts shipment in March 2017 arrived at Epstein's residence containing three pieces of the sacred Kiswa: one used inside the Kaaba, one from the outer covering, and one unused piece made from the same materials (labeled as "artworks" for customs). The transfer was coordinated through [[Middle East]]ern contacts, including [[Emirati]] businesswoman Aziza Al-Ahmadi and Abdullah Al-Maari. Emails in the unsealed [[US Justice Department]] files highlighted the [[religious]] [[history]] of the fabric, noting that millions of worshippers had touched and prayed near the outer covering.

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The Mecca artifacts shipment in March 2017 arrived at Epstein's residence containing three pieces of the sacred Kiswa: one used inside the Kaaba, one from the outer covering, and one unused piece made from the same materials (labeled as "artworks" for customs). The transfer was coordinated through [[Middle East]] ern contacts, including [[Emirati]] businesswoman Aziza Al-Ahmadi and Abdullah Al-Maari. Emails in the unsealed [[US Justice Department]] files highlighted the [[religious]] [[history]] of the fabric, noting that millions of worshippers had touched and prayed near the outer covering.

====Third Gulf war====

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Operating in coordination with [[Ansar Allah]]'s consolidation of the [[Yemen]]i [[Red Sea]] coast (including the [[strategic]] port of Mocha and littoral islands commanding the southern [[maritime]] approaches), deep-strike one-way attack [[drone]]s struck booster stations along the 5-million-barrel-per-day Petroline. The [[infrastructure]]—built specifically to transport [[crude oil]] from the Eastern Province to Yanbu on the Red Sea to bypass the [[Strait of Hormuz]]—was shut down entirely by [[Saudi Aramco]] following significant infrastructure damage. Intelligence assessments indicate the strike packages may have originated from [[Iraq]]i resistance factions operating with regional coordination.

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Operating in coordination with [[Ansar Allah]]'s consolidation of the [[Yemen]] [[Red Sea]] coast (including the [[strategic]] port of Mocha and littoral islands commanding the southern [[maritime]] approaches), deep-strike one-way attack [[drone]]s struck booster stations along the 5-million-barrel-per-day Petroline. The [[infrastructure]]—built specifically to transport [[crude oil]] from the Eastern Province to Yanbu on the Red Sea to bypass the [[Strait of Hormuz]]—was shut down entirely by [[Saudi Aramco]] following significant infrastructure damage. Intelligence assessments indicate the strike packages may have originated from [[Iraq]] resistance factions operating with regional coordination.

Confronted with an existential [[revenue]] halt, Crown Prince [[Mohammed bin Salman]] placed two consecutive emergency telephone calls in one day to [[US]] [[President Donald Trump]], demanding immediate, sustained U.S. [[aircraft carrier]] strikes against [[Houthi]] command networks and coastal launch complexes. Trump flatly refused. Preoccupied with collapsing [[domestic]] polling and the political drag of high fuel prices, the [[White House]] is unwilling to deploy limited [[naval]] aviation into a protracted Red Sea air campaign that would accelerate [[PAC-3]] and [[SM-6]] exhaustion.

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Saudi foreign policy objectives are to maintain its security and its paramount position on the Arabian Peninsula, defend general Arab and Islamic interests, promote solidarity among Islamic governments, and maintain cooperative relations with other oil-producing and major oil-consuming countries.

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====Relations with the United States====

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====Relations with the United States====Saudi Arabia's unique role in the Arab and Islamic worlds, its possession of the world's largest reserves of oil, and its strategic location make its friendship important to the United States. Diplomatic relations were established in 1933; the U.S. embassy opened in Jeddah in 1944 and moved to Riyadh in 1984. The Jeddah embassy became a U.S. consulate. Meanwhile, a U.S. consulate opened in Dhahran in 1944.

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Saudi Arabia's unique role in the Arab and Islamic worlds, its possession of the world's largest reserves of oil, and its strategic location make its friendship important to the United States. Diplomatic relations were established in 1933; the U.S. embassy opened in Jeddah in 1944 and moved to Riyadh in 1984. The Jeddah embassy became a U.S. consulate. Meanwhile, a U.S. consulate opened in Dhahran in 1944.

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The United States and Saudi Arabia share a common concern about regional security, oil exports and imports, and sustainable development. Close consultations between the U.S. and Saudi Arabia have developed on international, economic, and development issues such as the Middle East peace process and shared interests in the Gulf. The continued availability of reliable sources of oil, particularly from Saudi Arabia, remains important to the prosperity of the United States as well as to Europe and Japan. Saudi Arabia is one of the leading sources of imported oil for the United States, providing more than one million barrels/day of oil to the U.S. The U.S. is Saudi Arabia's largest trading partner, and Saudi Arabia is the largest U.S. export market in the Middle East.

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The United States and Saudi Arabia share a common concern about regional security, oil exports and imports, and sustainable development. Close consultations between the U.S. and Saudi Arabia have developed on international, economic, and development issues such as the Middle East peace process and shared interests in the Gulf. The continued availability of reliable sources of oil, particularly from Saudi Arabia, remains important to the prosperity of the United States as well as to Europe and Japan. Saudi Arabia is one of the leading sources of imported oil for the United States, providing more than one million barrels per day of oil to the U.S. The U.S. is Saudi Arabia's largest trading partner, and Saudi Arabia is the largest U.S. export market in the Middle East.

In addition to economic ties, a longstanding security relationship continues to be important in U.S.-Saudi relations. A U.S. military training mission established at Dhahran in 1953 provides training and support in the use of weapons and other security-related services to the Saudi armed forces. The United States has sold Saudi Arabia military aircraft (F-15s, AWACS, and UH-60 Blackhawks), air defense weaponry (Patriot and Hawk missiles), armored vehicles (M1A2 Abrams tanks and M-2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicles), and other equipment. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has had a long-term role in military and civilian construction activities in the Kingdom.

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The Gulf War and Operation Iraqi Freedom demonstrated U.S.-Saudi cooperation in the areas of cultural accommodation, as well as in military operations. For example, the U.S. military issued general orders prohibiting the consumption of alcohol and setting guidelines for off-duty behavior and attire. Saudi Arabia accommodated U.S. culture and its military procedures by allowing U.S. servicewomen to serve in their varied roles throughout the kingdom—a major step for a highly patriarchal society. In August 2003, following the U.S.-led war in Iraq in March and April 2003, the United States withdrew its troops stationed in Saudi Arabia.

[[File:Geore W. Bush - King Abdullah-hlrg.jpg|right|300px|thumb|George W. Bush - King Abdullah-hlrg.]]

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Saudi Arabia's relations with the United States were strained after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in which 15 of the hijackers were Saudi citizens. On May 12, 2003 suicide bombers killed 35 people, including nine Americans, in attacks at three housing compounds for Westerners in Riyadh. On November 8, 2003 terrorists attacked another compound housing foreign workers from mainly Arab countries. At least 18 people, including 5 children, died in this attack, and more than 100 were injured. When [[NATO]] forces raided the offices of the Saudi High Commission for Relief of Bosnia and Herzegovina; police found before-and-after images of the twin towers, US Embassy in Tanzania, US Embassy in Kenya, the USS Cole; detailed blueprints of buildings in DC, anti-American propaganda, anti-Semitic propaganda, and equipment for creating fake US government identification badges.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jc2VW8GUqAwC&pg=PA42&lpg=PA42&dq=saudi+high+commission+for+relief+of+bosnia+&+herzegovina+forging&source=bl&ots=FNjtuqvB24&sig=IsH8G43wYDnq-fV2lyzbNdvT04A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMscXG6t7TAhXD6yYKHcimCRgQ6AEIXDAI#v=onepage&q=saudi%20high%20commission%20for%20relief%20of%20bosnia%20&%20herzegovina%20forging&f=false|title=Funding Evil: How Terrorism is Financed-- and how to Stop it|last=Ehrenfeld|first=Rachel|date=2005-01-01|publisher=Bonus Books, Inc.|isbn=9781566252317|language=en}}</ref>

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Saudi Arabia's relations with the United States were strained after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in which 15 of the hijackers were Saudi citizens. On May 12, 2003, suicide bombers killed 35 people, including nine Americans, in attacks at three housing compounds for Westerners in Riyadh. On November 8, 2003, terrorists attacked another compound housing foreign workers from mainly Arab countries. At least 18 people, including 5 children, died in this attack, and more than 100 were injured. When [[NATO]] forces raided the offices of the Saudi High Commission for Relief of Bosnia and Herzegovina, police found before-and-after images of the twin towers, US Embassy in Tanzania, US Embassy in Kenya, the USS Cole; detailed blueprints of buildings in DC, anti-American propaganda, anti-Semitic propaganda, and equipment for creating fake US government identification badges.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jc2VW8GUqAwC&pg=PA42&lpg=PA42&dq=saudi+high+commission+for+relief+of+bosnia+&+herzegovina+forging&source=bl&ots=FNjtuqvB24&sig=IsH8G43wYDnq-fV2lyzbNdvT04A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMscXG6t7TAhXD6yYKHcimCRgQ6AEIXDAI#v=onepage&q=saudi%20high%20commission%20for%20relief%20of%20bosnia%20&%20herzegovina%20forging&f=false|title=Funding Evil: How Terrorism is Financed-- and how to Stop it|last=Ehrenfeld|first=Rachel|date=2005-01-01|publisher=Bonus Books, Inc.|isbn=9781566252317|language=en}}</ref>

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On May 1, 2004 terrorists killed two Americans in the Yanbu oil facility in the western part of the country. On May 29, 2004 terrorists killed one American and wounded several others in attacks on an official building and housing compound in al-Khobar in the Eastern Province. On June 6, terrorists shot and killed a BBC journalist. On June 9 and June 12, 2004 terrorists killed Americans Robert Jacobs and Kenneth Scroggs. On June 18, 2004 terrorists kidnapped and beheaded American Paul Johnson. On December 6, 2004 terrorists attacked the U.S. Consulate in Jeddah, killing five consulate employees. Terrorists also targeted and killed other foreign nationalities during this time. In February 2007, four French nationals were killed in western Saudi Arabia in a suspected terrorist attack.

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On May 1, 2004, terrorists killed two Americans in the Yanbu oil facility in the western part of the country. On May 29, 2004, terrorists killed one American and wounded several others in attacks on an official building and housing compound in al-Khobar in the Eastern Province. On June 6, terrorists shot and killed a BBC journalist. On June 9 and June 12, 2004, terrorists killed Americans Robert Jacobs and Kenneth Scroggs. On June 18, 2004, terrorists kidnapped and beheaded American Paul Johnson. On December 6, 2004, terrorists attacked the U.S. Consulate in Jeddah, killing five consulate employees. Terrorists also targeted and killed other foreign nationalities during this time. In February 2007, four French nationals were killed in western Saudi Arabia in a suspected terrorist attack.

Currently, Saudi Arabia is an important partner in the campaign against terrorism, providing assistance in the military, diplomatic, and financial arenas. Counterterrorism cooperation between Saudi Arabia and the United States increased significantly after the May 12, 2003 bombings in Riyadh and continues today. In February 2005, the Saudi government sponsored the first ever Counter-Terrorism International Conference in Riyadh.

====Relations with Pakistan====

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In September 2025, Saudi Arabia ~~has~~ signed a "strategic mutual defence" pact with [[Pakistan]], signaling to the [[US]] and [[Israel]] that the kingdom is willing to diversify its security alliances as it looks to bolster its [[deterrence]].

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In September 2025, Saudi Arabia signed a "strategic mutual defence" pact with [[Pakistan]], signaling to the [[US]] and [[Israel]] that the kingdom is willing to diversify its security alliances as it looks to bolster its [[deterrence]].

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The agreement with the [[Nuclear arms|nuclear-armed]] [[South Asia]] in state comes a week after [[Gulf states]] — traditionally reliant on the US as their security guarantor — were deeply rattled by Israel's [[missile]] strikes targeting [[Hamas]]'s [[political]] leaders in [[Qatar]].

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The agreement with the [[Nuclear arms|nuclear-armed]] [[South Asia]] in-state comes a week after [[Gulf states]] — traditionally reliant on the US as their security guarantor — were deeply rattled by Israel's [[missile]] strikes targeting [[Hamas]]'s [[political]] leaders in [[Qatar]].

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"We hope it will reinforce our deterrence — aggression against one is aggression against the other," a senior Saudi official told the [[UK]] ''[[Financial Times]]''. "This is a comprehensive defence agreement that will utilise all defensive and [[military]] means deemed necessary depending on the specific threat."<ref>https://archive.ph/g0rpK#selection-1885.0-1889.123</ref>

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"We hope it will reinforce our deterrence — aggression against one is aggression against the other," A senior Saudi official told the [[UK]] ''[[Financial Times]]''. "This is a comprehensive defence agreement that will utilise all defensive and [[military]] means deemed necessary depending on the specific threat."<ref>https://archive.ph/g0rpK#selection-1885.0-1889.123</ref>

===Military===

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Despite close cooperation on security issues, the United States remains concerned about [[human rights]] conditions in Saudi Arabia. Principal human rights problems include abuse of prisoners and incommunicado detention; prohibitions or severe restrictions on the freedoms of speech, press, peaceful assembly and association, and religion; denial of the right of citizens to change their government; systematic discrimination against women and ethnic and religious minorities; and suppression of workers' rights.

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There are strict laws punishable by beheading, such as for sodomy convictions. If the criminal is convicted of lewd offenses, occasionally the Saudis will crucify the ~~victim~~ in addition to beheading them in public. In 2008, 102 people were beheaded.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,523364,00.html?test=latestnews Saudis Behead, Crucify Convicted Child Molester, Murderer] AP, May 30, 2009</ref>

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There are strict laws punishable by beheading, such as for sodomy convictions. If the criminal is convicted of lewd offenses, occasionally the Saudis will crucify the offender in addition to beheading them in public. In 2008, 102 people were beheaded.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,523364,00.html?test=latestnews Saudis Behead, Crucify Convicted Child Molester, Murderer] AP, May 30, 2009</ref>

===Religion===

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As an [[Islam]]ic country under strict [[Shari'a]] law (Islamic law), Saudi Arabia has little of the religious freedom common in the West. Bringing a [[Bible]] or religious symbols such as a cross or a [[Star of David]] into the country, even for personal use only, will risk confiscation. Although Christianity is permitted, preaching to Muslims or attempting to convert them in public or private is a criminal offense, as is the production or distribution of Bibles.<ref>''Christian Examiner'', Sept. 2007, Vol 25, No 9, Pg. 20</ref>

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As an [[Islam]]ic country under strict [[Shari'a]] law (Islamic law), Saudi Arabia has little of the religious freedom common in the West. Bringing a [[Bible]] or religious symbols such as a cross or a [[Star of David]] into the country, even for personal use only, will risk confiscation. Although Christianity is permitted, preaching to Muslims or attempting to convert them in public or private is a criminal offense, as is the production or distribution of Bibles.<ref>''Christian Examiner'', Sept. 2007, Vol 25, No 9, Pg. 20</ref>

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Due to a sharp rise in petroleum revenues in 1974 following the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, Saudi Arabia became one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. It enjoyed a substantial surplus in its overall trade with other countries; imports increased rapidly; and ample government revenues were available for development, defense, and aid to other Arab and Islamic countries.

[[File:Saudi Aramco.jpg|left]]

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But higher oil prices led to both reduced consumption and development of more oil fields around the world. The result, beginning in the mid-1980s, was a worldwide oil glut, which introduced an element of planning uncertainty for the first time in a decade. Saudi oil production, which had increased to almost 10 million barrels per day (b/d) during 1980-81, dropped to about 2 million b/d in 1985. Budgetary deficits developed, and the government drew down its foreign assets. Responding to financial pressures, Saudi Arabia gave up its role as the "swing producer" within OPEC in the summer of 1985 and accepted a production quota. Since then, Saudi oil policy has been guided by a desire to maintain market and quota shares and to support stability in the international oil market. The stability has been further threatened by technology, such as hydraulic fracturing (or "fracing" as it is commonly known) which has allowed reduction in the cost to produce oil as well as redevelopment of older oil fields (such as the Permian Basin in ~~west~~ Texas).

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But higher oil prices led to both reduced consumption and development of more oil fields around the world. The result, beginning in the mid-1980s, was a worldwide oil glut, which introduced an element of planning uncertainty for the first time in a decade. Saudi oil production, which had increased to almost 10 million barrels per day (b/d) during 1980-81, dropped to about 2 million b/d in 1985. Budgetary deficits developed, and the government drew down its foreign assets. Responding to financial pressures, Saudi Arabia gave up its role as the "swing producer" within OPEC in the summer of 1985 and accepted a production quota. Since then, Saudi oil policy has been guided by a desire to maintain market and quota shares and to support stability in the international oil market. The stability has been further threatened by technology, such as hydraulic fracturing (or "fracing" as it is commonly known), which has allowed a reduction in the cost to produce oil as well as redevelopment of older oil fields (such as the Permian Basin in West Texas).Saudi Arabia was a key player in coordinating the successful 1999 campaign of OPEC and other oil-producing countries to raise the price of oil to its highest level since the Gulf War by managing production and supply of petroleum. That same year, Saudi Arabia established the Supreme Economic Council to formulate and better coordinate economic development policies to accelerate institutional and industrial reform.

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Saudi Arabia was a key player in coordinating the successful 1999 campaign of OPEC and other oil-producing countries to raise the price of oil to its highest level since the Gulf War by managing production and supply of petroleum. That same year, Saudi Arabia established the Supreme Economic Council to formulate and better coordinate economic development policies to accelerate institutional and industrial reform.

In response to increasing international demand for oil, Saudi ARAMCO is engaged in an expansion of its oil production capacity, and plans to raise its capacity from the current 9.5-10 million barrels/day (mb/d) to 12 mb/d within the next several years. Saudi ARAMCO is also increasing production of associated and non-associated natural gas to feed the expanding petrochemical sector. Notably, Saudi Arabia has awarded contracts to foreign companies to conduct gas exploration in selected regions of the country—the first such foreign participation in the petroleum sector upstream since the nationalization of ARAMCO in the 1970s.

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Saudi Arabia continues to pursue rapid industrial expansion, led by the petrochemical sector. The Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC), a parastatal petrochemical company, is now one of the world's leading petrochemical producers, and the government promotes private sector involvement in petrochemicals. The government also plans new investments in the mining sector and in refining,

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Saudi Arabia continues to pursue rapid industrial expansion, led by the petrochemical sector. The Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC), a parastatal petrochemical company, is now one of the world's leading petrochemical producers, and the government promotes private sector involvement in petrochemicals. The government also plans new investments in the mining sector and in refining.

After Saudi Arabia announced its intention to join the World Trade Organization (WTO), negotiations focused on increasing market access to foreign goods and services and the timeframe for becoming fully compliant with WTO obligations. In April 2000, the government established the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority to encourage foreign direct investment in the country. Saudi Arabia signed a Trade Investment Framework Agreement with the U.S. in July 2003, and joined the WTO in December 2005.

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Membership in the 11-member OPEC and in the technically and economically oriented Arab producer group—the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries—facilitates coordination of Saudi oil policies with other oil-exporting governments. As the world's leading exporter of petroleum, Saudi Arabia has a special interest in preserving a stable and long-term market for its vast oil resources by allying itself with healthy Western economies which can protect the value of Saudi financial assets. It generally has acted to stabilize the world oil market and tried to moderate sharp price movements.

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The Saudi government frequently helps mediate regional crises and support the Israeli-Palestinian peace negotiations. A charter member of the Arab League, Saudi Arabia supports the position that Israel must withdraw from the territories which it occupied in June 1967, as according to United Nations Resolution 242. Saudi Arabia supports a peaceful resolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict but rejected the Camp David accords, claiming that they would be unable to achieve a comprehensive political solution that would ensure Palestinian rights and adequately address the status of Jerusalem. Although Saudi Arabia broke diplomatic relations with and suspended aid to Egypt in the wake of Camp David, the two countries renewed formal ties in 1987. In March 2002, Crown Prince Abdallah offered a Middle East peace plan, now known as the Arab Peace Initiative, at the annual summit of the Arab League in which Arab governments would offer "normal relations and the security of Israel in exchange for a full Israeli withdrawal from all occupied Arab lands, recognition of an independent Palestinian state with Jerusalem as its capital, and the return of Palestinian refugees." In March 2007 the Arab League reiterated its support for the Arab Peace Initiative by endorsing it as the foundation for a broad Arab-Israeli peace.

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The Saudi government frequently helps mediate regional crises and support the Israeli-Palestinian peace negotiations. A charter member of the Arab League, Saudi Arabia supports the position that Israel must withdraw from the territories which it occupied in June 1967, according to United Nations Resolution 242. Saudi Arabia supports a peaceful resolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict but rejected the Camp David accords, claiming that they would be unable to achieve a comprehensive political solution that would ensure Palestinian rights and adequately address the status of Jerusalem. Although Saudi Arabia broke diplomatic relations with and suspended aid to Egypt in the wake of Camp David, the two countries renewed formal ties in 1987. In March 2002, Crown Prince Abdallah offered a Middle East peace plan, now known as the Arab Peace Initiative, at the annual summit of the Arab League in which Arab governments would offer "normal relations and the security of Israel in exchange for a full Israeli withdrawal from all occupied Arab lands, recognition of an independent Palestinian state with Jerusalem as its capital, and the return of Palestinian refugees." In March 2007 the Arab League reiterated its support for the Arab Peace Initiative by endorsing it as the foundation for a broad Arab-Israeli peace.

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As it had during the 1990-91 Gulf War, Saudi Arabia provided important support to Coalition efforts in Operation Iraqi Freedom. In 2006, Saudi Arabia hosted a conference to promote sectarian reconciliation within Iraq, and ~~has~~ pledged substantial debt relief to aid the elected government. Saudi Arabia is an important player in promoting stability and security in the Gulf region, and provided critical reconstruction support to Lebanon following the 2006 conflict between Hezbollah and Israel. Saudi Arabia has also taken a more prominent leadership role within the Organization of the Islamic Conference. In addition to promoting its Arab Peace initiative in 2007, in February it brokered an agreement between Palestinian factions known as the "Mecca Agreement," and in May 2007 King Abdullah brokered a reconciliation agreement between Chad and Sudan.

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As it had during the 1990-91 Gulf War, Saudi Arabia provided important support to Coalition efforts in Operation Iraqi Freedom. In 2006, Saudi Arabia hosted a conference to promote sectarian reconciliation within Iraq, and pledged substantial debt relief to aid the elected government. Saudi Arabia is an important player in promoting stability and security in the Gulf region, and has provided critical reconstruction support to Lebanon following the 2006 conflict between Hezbollah and Israel. Saudi Arabia has also taken a more prominent leadership role within the Organization of the Islamic Conference. In addition to promoting its Arab Peace initiative in 2007, in February it brokered an agreement between Palestinian factions known as the "Mecca Agreement," and in May 2007 King Abdullah brokered a reconciliation agreement between Chad and Sudan.

===Origins===

The Saudi state began in central Arabia in about 1750. A local ruler, Muhammad bin Saud, joined forces with an Islamic reformer, Muhammad Abd Al-Wahhab, to create a new political entity. Over the next 150 years, the fortunes of the Saud family rose and fell several times as Saudi rulers contended with Egypt, the [[Ottoman Empire]], and other Arabian families for control on the peninsula.

===Wahhabi===

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[[Wahhabi]] fundamentalism originated with [[Syria]]n jurist Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–92), but was hounded by the more moderate leaders of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In the early 19th century, alarmed by the increasing influence of Wahhabism in Saudi-controlled Arabia, the Ottoman Empire urged its Egyptian vassal Muhammad Ali Pasha (1769-1849) to mount an armed attack on the movement, which was considered anti-Turkish. Muhammad Ali began operations in 1811, and bitter fighting ensued on and off, with several cease-fires and impermanent peace agreements being tried until Egypt finally seemed to have succeeded (with the help of some Bedouin tribes that also objected to the stern religious views of Wahhabism) in subduing Arabia by 1818. However, Egypt had to concentrate on insurrections at home, and the Saudi Wahhabists eventually recovered their strength in the 1830s. They were confined to Arabia but Abdul Aziz ibn Saud (1876-1953), the founder of modern Saudi Arabia in 1924, was faithful to the Wahhabi sect, as are his hundreds of sons and grandsons who still rule the country. Once they gained oil money they used it to spread the sect. Wahhabism's explosive growth outside Arabia began in the 1970s when Saudi charities started funding Wahhabi schools (madrassas) and mosques from Pakistan to California.

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[[Wahhabi]] fundamentalism originated with [[Syria]] the jurist Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–92), but was hounded by the more moderate leaders of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In the early 19th century, alarmed by the increasing influence of Wahhabism in Saudi-controlled Arabia, the Ottoman Empire urged its Egyptian vassal Muhammad Ali Pasha (1769-1849) to mount an armed attack on the movement, which was considered anti-Turkish. Muhammad Ali began operations in 1811, and bitter fighting ensued on and off, with several cease-fires and impermanent peace agreements being tried until Egypt finally seemed to have succeeded (with the help of some Bedouin tribes that also objected to the stern religious views of Wahhabism) in subduing Arabia by 1818. However, Egypt had to concentrate on insurrections at home, and the Saudi Wahhabists eventually recovered their strength in the 1830s. They were confined to Arabia but Abdul Aziz ibn Saud (1876-1953), the founder of modern Saudi Arabia in 1924, was faithful to the Wahhabi sect, as are his hundreds of sons and grandsons who still rule the country. Once they gained oil money they used it to spread the sect. Wahhabism's explosive growth outside Arabia began in the 1970s when Saudi charities started funding Wahhabi schools (madrassas) and mosques from Pakistan to California.

===Modern state===

The modern Saudi state was founded by the late King Abdul Aziz Al Saud (known internationally as Ibn Saud). In 1902, Abdul Aziz recaptured Riyadh, the Al Saud dynasty's ancestral capital, from the rival Al-Rashid family. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued Al-Hasa, the rest of Nejd, and the Hijaz between 1913 and 1926. In 1932, these regions were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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[[File:King Abdullah Sport City Stadium.jpg|thumb|left|320px|King Abdullah Sport City Stadium.]]

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[[File:King Abdullah Sport City Stadium.jpg|thumb|left|320px|King Abdullah Sport City Stadium.]]During [[WW2]], Saudi Arabia's [[King Farouk]], officials were [[Nazi]] collaborators.<ref>M. Friedman, [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfBOAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA4 Saudi Arabian Official Exposed As Pro-Nazi Collaborator]. ''The Canadian Jewish Chronicle'', ‎Aug 2, 1957, p.7.</ref><ref>Reference Guide to the Nazis and Arabs During the [[Holocaust]]: A Concise Guide to the Relationship and Conspiracy of the Nazis and the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]] in North Africa and the Middle East During the Era of the Holocaust. (2006). United States: International Sephardic Leadership Council, [https://books.google.com/books?id=T2g2XA53UOEC&pg=PA15 p.15]</ref>

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During [[WW2]], Saudi Arabia's [[King Farouk]], officials were [[Nazi]] collaborators.<ref>M. Friedman, [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfBOAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA4 Saudi Arabian Official Exposed As Pro-Nazi Collaborator]. ''The Canadian Jewish Chronicle'', ‎Aug 2, 1957, p.7.</ref><ref>Reference Guide to the Nazis and Arabs During the [[Holocaust]]: A Concise Guide to the Relationship and Conspiracy of the Nazis and the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]] in North Africa and the Middle East During the Era of the Holocaust. (2006). United States: International Sephardic Leadership Council, [https://books.google.com/books?id=T2g2XA53UOEC&pg=PA15 p.15]</ref>

After the war, "King Farouk (and later the man who deposed him Gamal Abdal [[Nasser]]) in Egypt was a leading proponent in enticing Nazi war criminals to bring their grisly 'expertise' to help them against their" opponents.<ref>Trigg, J. (2011). Hitler's Jihadis: Muslim Volunteers of the [[Waffen-SS]]. United Kingdom: History Press,

[https://books.google.com/books?id=1_eaDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT261]</ref>

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The mid-1960s saw external pressures generated by Saudi-Egyptian differences over [[Yemen]]. When civil war broke out in 1962 between Yemeni royalists and republicans, Egyptian forces entered Yemen to support the new republican government, while Saudi Arabia backed the royalists. Tensions subsided only after 1967, when Egypt withdrew its troops from Yemen.

[[File:Saudi Arabia map.jpg|thumb|230px|Saudi Arabia road map.]]

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Saudi forces did not participate in the [[Six Day War|Six-Day (Arab-Israeli) War]] of June 1967, but the government later provided annual subsidies to Egypt, Jordan, and Syria to support their economies. During the [[1973 Arab-Israeli war]], Saudi Arabia participated in the post war Arab oil boycott of the United States and Netherlands. A member of the [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC), Saudi Arabia had joined other member countries in moderate oil price increases beginning in 1971. After the 1973 war, the price of oil rose substantially, dramatically increasing Saudi Arabia's wealth and political

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Saudi forces did not participate in the [[Six Day War|Six-Day (Arab-Israeli) War]] of June 1967, but the government later provided annual subsidies to Egypt, Jordan, and Syria to support their economies. During the [[1973 Arab-Israeli war]], Saudi Arabia participated in the post-war Arab oil boycott of the United States and Netherlands. A member of the [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC), Saudi Arabia had joined other member countries in moderate oil price increases beginning in 1971. After the 1973 war, the price of oil rose substantially, dramatically increasing Saudi Arabia's wealth and political influence.

In 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by a nephew, who was executed after an extensive investigation concluded that he acted alone. Faisal was succeeded by his half-brother Khalid as King and Prime Minister; their half-brother Prince Fahd was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Khalid empowered Crown Prince Fahd to oversee many aspects of the government's international and domestic affairs. Economic development continued rapidly under King Khalid, and the kingdom assumed a more influential role in regional politics and international economic and financial matters.

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===Attack on the Grand Mosque, 1979===

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The Grand Mosque in Mecca (home of the [[Kaaba]]) was briefly taken over for a period of weeks by an obscure group led by a poorly educated ''Bedouin'' named Juhayman<ref>Review of ''[http://www.fsmitha.com/review/trofimov2.html The Siege of Mecca: The Forgotten Uprising in Islam's Holiest Shrine and the Birth of al Qaeda]'', Yaroslav Trofimov, Doubleday, 2007.</ref> whose theology was an early manifestation of modern violent [[Salafi]]sm. These believers did not embrace many aspects of modern society. They opposed identity cards and passports because these denote loyalty to an entity other than [[Allah]]. They were against [[Idolatry|images of living beings]], not only on television and in photography but also on coins. The only previous violent encounter was when a group of young activists were caught smashing shop display windows showing female mannequins in the center of Medina in 1965. ~~And they~~ had peculiar views on ritual practices setting them apart from other religious communities and the religious establishment.

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The Grand Mosque in Mecca (home of the [[Kaaba]]) was briefly taken over for a period of weeks by an obscure group led by a poorly educated ''Bedouin'' named Juhayman<ref>Review of ''[http://www.fsmitha.com/review/trofimov2.html The Siege of Mecca: The Forgotten Uprising in Islam's Holiest Shrine and the Birth of al Qaeda]'', Yaroslav Trofimov, Doubleday, 2007.</ref> whose theology was an early manifestation of modern violent [[Salafi]]sm. These believers did not embrace many aspects of modern society. They opposed identity cards and passports because these denote loyalty to an entity other than [[Allah]]. They were against [[Idolatry|images of living beings]], not only on television and in photography but also on coins. The only previous violent encounter was when a group of young activists were caught smashing shop display windows showing female mannequins in the center of Medina in 1965. They had peculiar views on ritual practices setting them apart from other religious communities and the religious establishment.

The incident revealed the Saudi state was thoroughly unprepared to deal with a challenge to its legitimacy from conservative religious believers.<ref>Thomas Hegghammer and Stephane Lacroix. [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=862184 Rejectionist Islamism in Saudi Arabia: The Story of Juhayman al-Utaybi Revisited.] International Journal of Middle East Studies, February 2007, pp 103-122, Cambridge University Press.</ref> After three days of fruitless negotiations, the Saudis turned to external, non-Islamic "crusader" forces to dislodge the jihadis. Non-Muslims are not allowed within the city of Mecca, and bloodshed on the grounds of the temple is considered virtually an unpardonable sin; yet the Saudi state and its reigning religious establishment deputized, through a fatwa, the French Special Operations Forces to retake the mosque.<ref>Many details of the Mosque takeover remain officially classified Saudi state secrets. [http://cat-int.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/The-Makkah-Siege-In-defense-of-Juhayman-Sayyid-2004.pdf The Makkan Siege: In Defense of Juhayman], a collection of internet reports on the siege and excerpts of Juhayman's letters. Juhayman is considered to have provided more inspiration to the the modern jihadist movement than Osama bin Laden who left virtually no religious writings behind.</ref><ref>Peterson, J.E. “[http://www.jepeterson.net/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/APBN-003_Saudi_Arabia_Internal_Security_Incidents_Since_1979.pdf Saudi Arabia: Internal Security Incidents Since 1979.]” Arabian Peninsula Background Note, No. APBN-003. Published on www.JEPeterson.net, January 2004; updated 31 December 2007.</ref>

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===1987 Mecca massacre===

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In 1987 more than four hundred persons, mostly Iranian Shi'ite pilgrims and about 85 Saudis and security personnel, were killed during a demonstration against the "Enemies of Islam" (basically, the United States and Israel) in front of the Grand Mosque.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20091029204548/http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Hajj.htm#ref32 Khomeini's Messengers in Mecca (Hajj) by Martin Kramer]</ref> Iranian [[hajj]] pilgrims traditionally make up the largest single contingent from any single country.<ref>US Saudi Arabia Diplomatic and Political Cooperation Handbook, USA International Business Publications, 2007, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ob37QAVkGrgC&q=lunar%2BHijaz#v=snippet&q=lunar%2BHijaz&f=false p. 178.]</ref> Details about the incident and causes remain murky, with the official Saudi version contradicted by Iran's own investigation.<ref>The Muslim World League convened a conference in Mecca in October 1987 condemning Iran for the violence: Iran’s government--a government “accustomed to terrorism and a thirst for Muslim blood”--“solely bears the responsibility for the outrage in God’s holy mosque.” The conference endorsed the measures taken by the Saudi authorities “to quell the sedition and to contain the fires of wickedness.” Kramer, ''Khomeini’s Messengers''.</ref><ref>http://www.shiachat.com/forum/topic/234966843-saudi-propaganda-of-iranian-attack-on-kaabah-1987/ </ref>

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In 1987, more than four hundred persons, mostly Iranian Shi'ite pilgrims and about 85 Saudis and security personnel, were killed during a demonstration against the "Enemies of Islam" (basically, the United States and Israel) in front of the Grand Mosque.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20091029204548/http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Hajj.htm#ref32 Khomeini's Messengers in Mecca (Hajj) by Martin Kramer]</ref> Iranian [[hajj]] pilgrims traditionally make up the largest single contingent from any single country.<ref>US Saudi Arabia Diplomatic and Political Cooperation Handbook, USA International Business Publications, 2007, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ob37QAVkGrgC&q=lunar%2BHijaz#v=snippet&q=lunar%2BHijaz&f=false p. 178.]</ref> Details about the incident and causes remain murky, with the official Saudi version contradicted by Iran's own investigation.<ref>The Muslim World League convened a conference in Mecca in October 1987 condemning Iran for the violence: Iran’s government--a government “accustomed to terrorism and a thirst for Muslim blood”--“solely bears the responsibility for the outrage in God’s holy mosque.” The conference endorsed the measures taken by the Saudi authorities “to quell the sedition and to contain the fires of wickedness.” Kramer, ''Khomeini’s Messengers''.</ref><ref>http://www.shiachat.com/forum/topic/234966843-saudi-propaganda-of-iranian-attack-on-kaabah-1987/ </ref>

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Shock over violence just outside the Grand Mosque again sparked a debate across the Muslim world about the Saudis dual role as American ally and ~~Custodian of the Two Holy~~ Custodian of the Islamic Holy Places.<ref>http://introducingislam.org/info/carnage/carnage.php </ref> [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] condemned the "vile and ungodly Wahhabis" as "lackeys of the United States” and called for the overthrow of the House of Saud.<ref><small>"Iran convened an “International Congress on Safeguarding the Sanctity and Security of the Great Mosque,” under the auspices of the ministry of Islamic guidance and the foreign ministry. Rafsanjani, in addressing the three hundred participants from 36 countries, called for the “liberation” of Mecca and the establishment of an “Islamic International” which would govern Mecca as a free city."</small> Kramer, ''Khomeini’s Messengers''.</ref> The Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC) formed a group known as Hezbollah al-Hejaz, more commonly known as Saudi Hezbollah, for this purpose.<ref>https://www.aei.org/publication/saudi-arabias-forgotten-shiite-spring/ </ref>

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Shock over violence just outside the Grand Mosque again sparked a debate across the Muslim world about the Saudis' dual role as American ally and Custodian of the Islamic Holy Places.<ref>http://introducingislam.org/info/carnage/carnage.php </ref> [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] condemned the "vile and ungodly Wahhabis" as "lackeys of the United States” and called for the overthrow of the House of Saud.<ref><small>"Iran convened an “International Congress on Safeguarding the Sanctity and Security of the Great Mosque,” under the auspices of the ministry of Islamic guidance and the foreign ministry. Rafsanjani, in addressing the three hundred participants from 36 countries, called for the “liberation” of Mecca and the establishment of an “Islamic International” which would govern Mecca as a free city."</small> Kramer, ''Khomeini’s Messengers''.</ref> The Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC) formed a group known as Hezbollah al-Hejaz, more commonly known as Saudi Hezbollah, for this purpose.<ref>https://www.aei.org/publication/saudi-arabias-forgotten-shiite-spring/ </ref>

It was in this atmosphere of anti-Saudi and anti-U.S. sentiment throughout the Muslim world that [[Saddam Hussein]] made his calculated gamble to challenge Saudi Arabia and the United States over Kuwait in 1990.<ref>

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===1991 Gulf war===

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{{See also|1991 Persian Gulf war}}In 1990-91, Saudi Arabia played an important role in the Gulf War, developing new allies and improving existing relationships between Saudi Arabia and some other countries. Saudi Arabia provided water, food, shelter, and fuel for coalition forces in the region. Saudi Arabia's combined costs in payments, foregone revenues, and donated supplies were $55 billion. More than $15 billion went toward reimbursing the United States alone. However, there were also diplomatic and financial costs. Relations between Saudi Arabia and Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya deteriorated. Each country had remained silent following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait but called for an end to the violence once the deployment of coalition troops began. Relations between these countries and Saudi Arabia have returned to their pre-war status. Saudi Arabia's relations with those countries which expressed support for Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait—Yemen, Jordan, and Sudan—were severely strained during and immediately after the war. For example, several hundred thousand Yemenis were expelled from Saudi Arabia after the Government of Yemen announced its position, thus exacerbating an existing border dispute. Saudi-Yemeni relations, especially in the wake of the 1994 Yemeni civil war, remained fragile and of significant concern to the Saudi Government. Relations have slowly warmed over time, and the Yemeni-Saudi border was finally demarcated in 2000. The Palestine Liberation Organization's support for Iraq cost it financial aid as well as good relations with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states. Recently, though, Saudi Arabia's relations with Jordan and the Palestinian Authority have improved, with the Saudi Government providing assistance for the Palestinian Authority.

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In 1990-91, Saudi Arabia played an important role in the Gulf War, developing new allies and improving existing relationships between Saudi Arabia and some other countries. Saudi Arabia provided water, food, shelter, and fuel for coalition forces in the region. Saudi Arabia's combined costs in payments, foregone revenues, and donated supplies were $55 billion. More than $15 billion went toward reimbursing the United States alone. However, there also ~~were~~ diplomatic and financial costs. Relations between Saudi Arabia and Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya deteriorated. Each country had remained silent following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait but called for an end to violence once the deployment of coalition troops began. Relations between these countries and Saudi Arabia have returned to their pre-war status. Saudi Arabia's relations with those countries which expressed support for Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait—Yemen, Jordan, and Sudan—were severely strained during and immediately after the war. For example, several hundred thousand Yemenis were expelled from Saudi Arabia after the Government of Yemen announced its position, thus exacerbating an existing border dispute. Saudi-Yemeni relations, especially in the wake of the 1994 ~~Yemen~~ civil war, remained fragile and of significant concern to the Saudi Government. Relations have slowly warmed over time and the Yemeni-Saudi border was finally demarcated in 2000. The Palestine Liberation Organization's support for Iraq cost it financial aid as well as good relations with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states. Recently, though, Saudi Arabia's relations with Jordan and the Palestinian Authority have improved, with the Saudi Government providing assistance for the Palestinian Authority.

==Wahhabi Lobby==

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==Notable Saudi Arabians==

*[[Osama Bin Laden]]: former leader of Al-Qaeda; died in 2011

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*[[Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Alsaud]]: ranked 11th richest person in the world by ~~USAToday~~ in 2002.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210816000109/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002/02/28/forbes.htm Ranking the world's richest people]. '"USA Today'', 03/01/2002.</ref>

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*[[Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Alsaud]]: ranked 11th richest person in the world by USA Today in 2002.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210816000109/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002/02/28/forbes.htm Ranking the world's richest people]. '"USA Today'', 03/01/2002.</ref>

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*[[Raif Badawi]]: Imprisoned blogger, winner of the Sakharov Prize in 2015 and nominated for Nobel Peace Prize.<ref name="Nobel">{{cite web|url=http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2015/02/150847/saudi-blogger-raif-badawi-nominated-nobel-peace-prize-2015/|title=Saudi Blogger Raif Badawi Nominated for Nobel Peace Prize 2015|website=Morocco World News|date=2 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="EUparl">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34667260|title=Saudi blogger Raif Badawi awarded Sakharov human rights prize|website=BBC News|date=29 October 2015}}</ref>

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*[[Raif Badawi]]: Imprisoned blogger, winner of the Sakharov Prize in 2015 and nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize.<ref name="Nobel">{{cite web|url=http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2015/02/150847/saudi-blogger-raif-badawi-nominated-nobel-peace-prize-2015/|title=Saudi Blogger Raif Badawi Nominated for Nobel Peace Prize 2015|website=Morocco World News|date=2 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="EUparl">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34667260|title=Saudi blogger Raif Badawi awarded Sakharov human rights prize|website=BBC News|date=29 October 2015}}</ref>

*[[Hamza Kashgari]]: Arrested for tweets critical of [[Muhammad]].<ref name="emirates247_arrested">{{cite news | title= Sacrilegious Saudi writer arrested in Malaysia| date=2012-02-09| work= [[Emirates 24/7]]| url= http://www.emirates247.com/news/region/sacrilegious-saudi-writer-arrested-in-malaysia-2012-02-09-1.442198| accessdate=2017-05-07 | archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/65MOcflmZ| archivedate=2012-02-10 }}</ref>

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==Further reading==

* Commins, David. ''The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia'' (2006) 276p.

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* Niblock, Tim. ''Saudi Arabia: Power, Legitimacy, and Survival''(2006)

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* Niblock, Tim. ''Saudi Arabia: Power, Legitimacy, and Survival'' (2006)

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* Cordesman, Anthony, and Nawaf Obaid. ''National Security in Saudi Arabia: Threats, Responses, and Challenges'' (2005).

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* Cordesman, Anthony, and Nawaf Obaid. ''National Security in Saudi Arabia: Threats, Responses, and Challenges'' (2005).

==References==

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