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[[Image:Newton.png|right|200px]]

[[Image:Newton.png|right|200px]]

'''Sir Isaac Newton''' (1642-1727) was an [[England|English]] [[physicist]], [[astronomer]], [[mathematician]], [[theologian]], [[alchemy|alchemist]] and government official. He is one of the most well-known [[scientist]]s in world history for his [[Theory of Universal Gravitation]], his Laws of Motion, and his theories in optics, as well as his invention of differential [[calculus]].<ref>Newton's discovery of calculus was independent of, and likely before, a similar discovery of calculus by the German scientist [[Gottfried Leibniz]]. (Each accused the other of plagiarism, but neither could prove it. [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html Newton Biography]).</ref> In addition, Newton invented the reflecting [[telescope]], and made numerous other contributions to his fields of study. His [[Classical mechanics]] comprises the four main fields of modern physics (alongside the later fields of [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]], [[thermodynamics]], and quantum mechanics). In his opinion, his unique achievements in [[natural science]] were conveyed to him by [[God]] alone.<ref>{{cite web |title=One Prophet Interprets Another: Sir Isaac Newton and Daniel |author=Matania Z. Kochavi |accessdate=19-Dec-2021 |quote=The sense of chosenness grew in Newton, not as a result of his study of prophecies, but following his unique achievements in natural science, which in his opinion, were conveyed to him by God alone. |publisher=Springer Nature Switzerland AG. |isbn=978-94-017-3249-9 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-3249-9_7}}</ref>

'''Sir Isaac Newton''' (1642–1727) was an [[England|English]] [[physicist]], [[astronomer]], [[mathematician]], [[theologian]], [[alchemy|alchemist]] and government official. He is one of the most well-known [[scientist]]s in world history for his [[Theory of Universal Gravitation]], his Laws of Motion, and his theories in optics, as well as his invention of differential [[calculus]].<ref>Newton's discovery of calculus was independent of, and likely before, a similar discovery of calculus by the German scientist [[Gottfried Leibniz]]. (Each accused the other of plagiarism, but neither could prove it. [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html Newton Biography]).</ref> In addition, Newton invented the reflecting [[telescope]], and made numerous other contributions to his fields of study. His [[Classical mechanics]] comprises the four main fields of modern physics (alongside the later fields of [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]], [[thermodynamics]], and quantum mechanics). In his opinion, his unique achievements in [[natural science]] were conveyed to him by [[God]] alone.<ref>{{cite web |title=One Prophet Interprets Another: Sir Isaac Newton and Daniel |author=Matania Z. Kochavi |accessdate=19-Dec-2021 |quote=The sense of chosenness grew in Newton, not as a result of his study of prophecies, but following his unique achievements in natural science, which in his opinion, were conveyed to him by God alone. |publisher=Springer Nature Switzerland AG. |isbn=978-94-017-3249-9 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-3249-9_7}}</ref>

Proving the value of [[Biblical scientific foreknowledge]], Newton attributed his insights to his efforts in translating the [[Bible]]: "Amongst the Interpreters of the last age there is scarce one of note who hath not made some discovery worth knowing; and thence seem to gather that [[God]] is about opening these mysteries."<ref>http://www.pretribulation.com/isaac-newton.htm</ref>

Proving the value of [[Biblical scientific foreknowledge]], Newton attributed his insights to his efforts in translating the [[Bible]]: "Amongst the Interpreters of the last age there is scarce one of note who hath not made some discovery worth knowing; and thence seem to gather that [[God]] is about opening these mysteries."<ref>http://www.pretribulation.com/isaac-newton.htm</ref>

==National affairs==

==National affairs==

Publication in 1687 of the ''Principia'', considered by many to be the most important scientific publication ever, made Newton one of the best-known intellectual figures in Europe. At the same time, Newton became a leader of the University against King [[James II]], who was promoting Catholicism there. When James was overthrown, Newton's political reputation soared. In 1694 he suffered an emotional breakdown and his intellectual productivity ended. In 1696 he left Cambridge for London, where he became Warden of the [[mint|Royal Mint]]. The appointment was intended as an honorary sinecure for England's most famous intellectual, but Newton characteristically threw himself into a successful effort to reform the nation's coinage and crack down on counterfeiters. He became Master of the Mint in 1699; in 27 years as Master he averaged an income of about £1650 a year, one of the highest salaries in London. He was president of the Royal Society from 1703 to his death, turning that honorific position into an operational one that upgraded the Society's usefulness. In 1705 he became the first scientist in European history to be knighted.

Publication in 1687 of the ''Principia'', considered by many to be the most important scientific publication ever, made Newton one of the best-known intellectual figures in Europe. At the same time, Newton became a leader of the university against King [[James II]], who was promoting Catholicism there. When James was overthrown, Newton's political reputation soared. In 1694 he suffered an emotional breakdown and his intellectual productivity ended. In 1696 he left Cambridge for London, where he became Warden of the [[mint|Royal Mint]]. The appointment was intended as an honorary sinecure for England's most famous intellectual, but Newton characteristically threw himself into a successful effort to reform the nation's coinage and crack down on counterfeiters. He became Master of the Mint in 1699; in 27 years as Master he averaged an income of about £1650 a year, one of the highest salaries in London. He was president of the Royal Society from 1703 to his death, turning that honorific position into an operational one that upgraded the Society's usefulness. In 1705 he became the first scientist in European history to be knighted.

Newton never married, but he brought his niece to London as his hostess and lived in upper-class style.

Newton never married, but he brought his niece to London as his hostess and lived in upper-class style.

==Year of great discovery==

==Year of great discovery==

[[File:Isaac Newton.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Isaac Newton]]

[[File:Isaac Newton.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Isaac Newton]]

The year 1666 is known as Newton's ''annus mirabilis'' (miraculous year—more precisely the two years 1665-1666), about twenty-four years of age. He later recalled, "For in those days I was in the prime of my age for invention & minded Mathematicks & Philosophy more than at any time since." (By "philosophy" he meant physics.)

The year 1666 is known as Newton's ''annus mirabilis'' (miraculous year—more precisely the two years 1665–1666), about twenty-four years of age. He later recalled, "For in those days I was in the prime of my age for invention & minded Mathematicks & Philosophy more than at any time since." (By "philosophy" he meant physics.)

===Calculus===

===Calculus===

==Newtonianism==

==Newtonianism==

Feingold (2004) explains the rapid dissemination of Newton's science came first via the members of the Royal Society, both British and Continental. The scientists, mathematicians, and philosophers of Germany, Holland, France, and Italy read the editions of the ''Principia'' and the ''Opticks'' and taught the ideas to their students. Newton's work was widely accepted, except in Italy, where the Catholic Church, having silenced Galileo, tried as well to suppress Newton's ideas. Despite the importance of Descartes to the French, Newton carried the day in France. [[Voltaire]] in particular made Newton the great hero of the modern world of ideas. Voltaire's ''Elemens de la philosophie de Neuton,'' (1737), was a success that rendered Newton intelligible and his work accessible, to the nonspecialists and amateurs who flourished in the [[Enlightenment]]. In Germany [[Leibniz]] praised Newton's ''Principia'', but was uncomfortable with Newton's position regarding gravity. It was philosophically untenable to merely dismiss the problem of its cause. French scientists, especially [[Pierre Simon Laplace]] (1749-1827) developed and systemized Newton's ideas into modern [[Classical mechanics]] in the late 18th century.<ref>Roger Hahn, ''Pierre Simon Laplace, 1749-1827: A Determined Scientist.'' (2005). 310 pp.</ref>

Feingold (2004) explains the rapid dissemination of Newton's science came first via the members of the Royal Society, both British and Continental. The scientists, mathematicians, and philosophers of Germany, Holland, France, and Italy read the editions of the ''Principia'' and the ''Opticks'' and taught the ideas to their students. Newton's work was widely accepted, except in Italy, where the Catholic Church, having silenced Galileo, tried as well to suppress Newton's ideas. Despite the importance of Descartes to the French, Newton carried the day in France. [[Voltaire]] in particular made Newton the great hero of the modern world of ideas. Voltaire's ''Elemens de la philosophie de Neuton,'' (1737), was a success that rendered Newton intelligible and his work accessible, to the nonspecialists and amateurs who flourished in the [[Enlightenment]]. In Germany [[Leibniz]] praised Newton's ''Principia'', but was uncomfortable with Newton's position regarding gravity. It was philosophically untenable to merely dismiss the problem of its cause. French scientists, especially [[Pierre Simon Laplace]] (1749–1827) developed and systemized Newton's ideas into modern [[Classical mechanics]] in the late 18th century.<ref>Roger Hahn, ''Pierre Simon Laplace, 1749-1827: A Determined Scientist.'' (2005). 310 pp.</ref>

Newton's science dominated science and educated thought throughout the 18th century, being seen as the highest achievement of pure reason and classical culture.<ref>Feingold, ''The Newtonian Moment'' (2004);  Larry Stewart, ''The Rise of Public Science: Rhetoric, Technology, and Natural Philosophy in Newtonian Britain, 1660-1750.'' (1992)</ref>  In the 19th century, however, Romantic scientists went in entirely new directions, exploring non-Newtonian topics in electricity, magnetism and thermodynamics, and in mathematics turning to topics unrelated to calculus, like group theory. The leading German poet, [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] - who was also a renowned Natural philosopher - even tried to challenge Newton's optics.

Newton's science dominated science and educated thought throughout the 18th century, being seen as the highest achievement of pure reason and classical culture.<ref>Feingold, ''The Newtonian Moment'' (2004);  Larry Stewart, ''The Rise of Public Science: Rhetoric, Technology, and Natural Philosophy in Newtonian Britain, 1660-1750.'' (1992)</ref>  In the 19th century, however, Romantic scientists went in entirely new directions, exploring non-Newtonian topics in electricity, magnetism and thermodynamics, and in mathematics turning to topics unrelated to calculus, like group theory. The leading German poet, [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] - who was also a renowned Natural philosopher - even tried to challenge Newton's optics.