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== History ==

== History ==

The group originated in the 1870s with a movement called the Bible Students, founded by [[Charles Taze Russell]] (1852-1916). He did so in the town of Columbus, Ohio, in 1931. As a young man, Russell was critical of some Christian doctrines, and was attracted to the teachings of William Miller and other [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Adventists]] who speculated upon the return of the Savior. During the repeated crises of the Adventists, when all dates calculated for the second coming proved erroneous, Russel started his own movement in the 1870s. Predictions concerning the second coming of a spiritual Lord and intensive distribution of tract literature and of 'Watchtower' materials characterize the organization of his group. Russell organized a Bible class to study the scriptures from the ground up.  The study process involved raising a question, discussing the topic and reviewing all known related scriptures that the participants could find on the point.  The results were recorded whether or not they matched long-standing theological viewpoints.  His group was known first as Russellites and then as the "International Bible Students." Russell founded ''The Herald of the Morning'' (1879), which later became ''The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom'', then was renamed to ''Zion's Watch Tower'', and now simply ''The Watchtower'', and Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society in 1884 (later renamed Watchtower Bible and Tract Society).<ref name="Kingdom of the Cults">Martin, Walter. Kingdom of the Cults. Bethany House, 1997.</ref>

The group originated in the 1870s with a movement called the Bible Students, founded by [[Charles Taze Russell]] (1852–1916). He did so in the town of Columbus, Ohio, in 1931. As a young man, Russell was critical of some Christian doctrines, and was attracted to the teachings of William Miller and other [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Adventists]] who speculated upon the return of the Savior. During the repeated crises of the Adventists, when all dates calculated for the second coming proved erroneous, Russel started his own movement in the 1870s. Predictions concerning the second coming of a spiritual Lord and intensive distribution of tract literature and of 'Watchtower' materials characterize the organization of his group. Russell organized a Bible class to study the scriptures from the ground up.  The study process involved raising a question, discussing the topic and reviewing all known related scriptures that the participants could find on the point.  The results were recorded whether or not they matched long-standing theological viewpoints.  His group was known first as Russellites and then as the "International Bible Students." Russell founded ''The Herald of the Morning'' (1879), which later became ''The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom'', then was renamed to ''Zion's Watch Tower'', and now simply ''The Watchtower'', and Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society in 1884 (later renamed Watchtower Bible and Tract Society).<ref name="Kingdom of the Cults">Martin, Walter. Kingdom of the Cults. Bethany House, 1997.</ref>

"Judge" Joseph F. Rutherford (1869-1942), a prolific writer, served as the second president, 1916–42, and renamed the movement "Jehovah's Witnesses" in 1931.  By 1938 there were 115,000 members, and local churches were becoming more directly organized by the Society's headquarters in Brooklyn.  

"Judge" Joseph F. Rutherford (1869–1942), a prolific writer, served as the second president, 1916–42, and renamed the movement "Jehovah's Witnesses" in 1931.  By 1938 there were 115,000 members, and local churches were becoming more directly organized by the Society's headquarters in Brooklyn.  

Witnesses are well known worldwide for their door-to-door preaching which features use of the Bible and distribution of ''[[The Watchtower]]'' and ''[[Awake!]]'' magazine.  They do not celebrate holidays that are not discussed in the Bible or that they feel serve to exalt individuals, human organizations or national groups, believing them to be an affront to God. In the 1920s and 1930s Witnesses would enter communities in large numbers, play loud phonograph records, and go door-to-door in search of potential converts, and denouncing organized religion as evil. [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], whose mother was a leader of the Witnesses in Kansas, came under attack for his connection; he defended the group but never affiliated with it. {{citation needed}}

Witnesses are well known worldwide for their door-to-door preaching which features use of the Bible and distribution of ''[[The Watchtower]]'' and ''[[Awake!]]'' magazine.  They do not celebrate holidays that are not discussed in the Bible or that they feel serve to exalt individuals, human organizations or national groups, believing them to be an affront to God. In the 1920s and 1930s Witnesses would enter communities in large numbers, play loud phonograph records, and go door-to-door in search of potential converts, and denouncing organized religion as evil. [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], whose mother was a leader of the Witnesses in Kansas, came under attack for his connection; he defended the group but never affiliated with it. {{citation needed}}

===Financial controversies===

===Financial controversies===

While many of the Jehovah's Witnesses' teachings and practices were controversial due to conflicting with the Bible's teachings, this was not the only source of controversy Russell faced. Several times, Russell was also challenged over his financial motivations for running the Jehovah's Witnesses. In 1879, Russell married Maria Ackley in Pittsburgh. Two years later, the two of them founded ''The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society'' and it prospered under them. However, Maria left her husband in 1897, and she sued for separation in 1903. The following court proceedings led to some uncomfortable findings about Russell, including that the wealth from Russell's various subsidiary companies flowed back to a holding company that Russell owned. Of that money, Russell received exactly 99% of profits, with the remaining 1% going to his followers. He had no accountability as to how that money was used.<ref name="Kingdom of the Cults">Martin, Walter. Kingdom of the Cults. Bethany House, 1997.</ref>

While many of the Jehovah's Witnesses' teachings and practices were controversial due to conflicting with the Bible's teachings, this was not the only source of controversy Russell faced. Several times, Russell was also challenged over his financial motivations for running the Jehovah's Witnesses. In 1879, Russell married Maria Ackley in Pittsburgh. Two years later, the two of them founded ''The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society'' and it prospered under them. However, Maria left her husband in 1897, and she sued for separation in 1903. The following court proceedings led to some uncomfortable findings about Russell, including that the wealth from Russell's various subsidiary companies flowed back to a holding company that Russell owned. Of that money, Russell received exactly 99% of profits, with the remaining 1% going to his followers. He had no accountability as to how that money was used.<ref name="Kingdom of the Cults"/>

Russell and the Watch Tower were also involved in other actives which seemed to be money-making schemes, such as the Watch Tower advertising "Miracle Wheat" seed for $1 per pound (a steep price in the day). They claimed that it would grow five times as much as any other wheat brand. ''The Eagle'' then satirized this scheme with a cartoon, which prompted Russell to sue the publication for libel. The following legal proceedings involved having government experts analyze the wheat in question, as well as Russell's finances. In the end, it was determined by the court that Russell's "Miracle Wheat" was no different than any other, and he lost his $100,000 suit. Today, The Watchtower Society maintains that Russell never benefited financially from the sale of this "Miracle Wheat", but rather donated the proceeds to the organization. They neglect to mention Russell owning 990 of the organizations 1000 shares of stock, meaning he received most of the money donated to the organization.<ref name="Kingdom of the Cults">Martin, Walter. Kingdom of the Cults. Bethany House, 1997.</ref>

Russell and the Watch Tower were also involved in other actives which seemed to be money-making schemes, such as the Watch Tower advertising "Miracle Wheat" seed for $1 per pound (a steep price in the day). They claimed that it would grow five times as much as any other wheat brand. ''The Eagle'' then satirized this scheme with a cartoon, which prompted Russell to sue the publication for libel. The following legal proceedings involved having government experts analyze the wheat in question, as well as Russell's finances. In the end, it was determined by the court that Russell's "Miracle Wheat" was no different than any other, and he lost his $100,000 suit. Today, The Watchtower Society maintains that Russell never benefited financially from the sale of this "Miracle Wheat", but rather donated the proceeds to the organization. They neglect to mention Russell owning 990 of the organizations 1000 shares of stock, meaning he received most of the money donated to the organization.<ref name="Kingdom of the Cults"/>

===Pledge of Allegiance===

===Pledge of Allegiance===

In 1935, two young Witnesses Lillian Gobitas and her younger brother William refused to salute the American flag in school in Minersville, Pennsylvania; both were expelled from public school. Their father found relief in the 3d Circuit Court of Appeals, but the children were still not accepted back in school. The case went to the Supreme Court, where the court held for the school board in an opinion written by Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]].  The Supreme Court ruled that the flag salute could be made mandatory despite religious convictions. The ruling led to assaults on Jehovah's Witnesses,  Three years later the court reversed its ruling against the Witnesses in 'West Virginia State Board of Education' v. 'Barnette' (1943). The Witnesses' trials support the position that American liberty does not emanate so much from localities and states taking their stand against a potentially tyrannical federal government as from an elite legal culture that places the Constitution and individual rights above the passions of communities and crowds.<ref>See Francis (2000)</ref>  

In 1935, two young Witnesses Lillian Gobitas and her younger brother William refused to salute the American flag in school in Minersville, Pennsylvania; both were expelled from public school. Their father found relief in the 3d Circuit Court of Appeals, but the children were still not accepted back in school. The case went to the Supreme Court, where the court held for the school board in an opinion written by Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]].  The Supreme Court ruled that the flag salute could be made mandatory despite religious convictions. The ruling led to assaults on Jehovah's Witnesses,  Three years later the court reversed its ruling against the Witnesses in 'West Virginia State Board of Education' v. 'Barnette' (1943). The Witnesses' trials support the position that American liberty does not emanate so much from localities and states taking their stand against a potentially tyrannical federal government as from an elite legal culture that places the Constitution and individual rights above the passions of communities and crowds.<ref>See Francis (2000)</ref>  

The many legal battles waged by the Jehovah's Witnesses in the Supreme Court during the 1930s-40's were not accidental but rather a result of a strategy employed by leaders of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society to secure the right to proselytization through winning key 1st Amendment cases in the high courts. Judge Joseph Franklin Rutherford envisioned using the law to empower and protect Jehovah's Witnesses against canvassing prohibitions and mob violence, but it was Hayden Covington of the group's legal department who actively steered Witnesses into legal confrontations nationwide. Covington deliberately sent Witnesses into areas where their activity was either prohibited or unpopular.{{citation needed}} Witnesses were aptly prepared for arrest and were given legal guidance about how to get their cases appealed to higher courts. The end result of this strategy was that 19 cases regarding Jehovah's Witnesses reached the Supreme Court during 1939–50.<ref>Jennifer Jacobs Henderson, "Witnesses and their Plan to Expand First Amendment Freedoms," ''Journal of Church & State'' 2004 46(4): 811-832, in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

The many legal battles waged by the Jehovah's Witnesses in the Supreme Court during the 1930s-40's were not accidental but rather a result of a strategy employed by leaders of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society to secure the right to proselytization through winning key 1st Amendment cases in the high courts. Judge Joseph Franklin Rutherford envisioned using the law to empower and protect Jehovah's Witnesses against canvassing prohibitions and mob violence, but it was Hayden Covington of the group's legal department who actively steered Witnesses into legal confrontations nationwide. Covington deliberately sent Witnesses into areas where their activity was either prohibited or unpopular.{{citation needed}} Witnesses were aptly prepared for arrest and were given legal guidance about how to get their cases appealed to higher courts. The result of this strategy was that 19 cases regarding Jehovah's Witnesses reached the Supreme Court during 1939–50.<ref>Jennifer Jacobs Henderson, "Witnesses and their Plan to Expand First Amendment Freedoms," ''Journal of Church & State'' 2004 46(4): 811-832, in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

===Canada===

===Canada===

==Further reading==

==Further reading==

* Bergman, Gerald. "The Influence of Religion on President Eisenhower's Upbringing," ''Journal of American & Comparative Cultures'' 2000 23(4): 89-107, in [[EBSCO]]

* Bergman, Gerald. "The Influence of Religion on President Eisenhower's Upbringing," ''Journal of American & Comparative Cultures'' 2000 23(4): 89–107, in [[EBSCO]]

* Eddy, G. Norman. " The Jehovah's Witnesses: An Interpretation," ''Journal of Bible and Religion,'' Vol. 26, No. 2 (Apr., 1958), pp.&nbsp;115–121 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1459283 in JSTOR]

* Eddy, G. Norman. " The Jehovah's Witnesses: An Interpretation," ''Journal of Bible and Religion,'' Vol. 26, No. 2 (Apr., 1958), pp.&nbsp;115–121 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1459283 in JSTOR]

* Harrison, Barbara Grizzuti. ''Visions of Glory: A History and a Memory of Jehovah's Witnesses'' (1978), popular history

* Harrison, Barbara Grizzuti. ''Visions of Glory: A History and a Memory of Jehovah's Witnesses'' (1978), popular history

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*[[Canadian Christianity]]

*[[Canadian Christianity]]

*[[American_Christianity]]

*[[American Christianity]]

*[[Future of Christianity]]

*[[Future of Christianity]]

*[[Christianity in Africa]]

*[[Christianity in Africa]]