Changes

In the 1950s and 1960s, the United States and Soviet Union engaged in a “Space Race” to see who could explore and perhaps claim outer space first.  In 1957, the Soviet Union shocked Americans by being the first to launch spacecraft (“Sputnik”) into orbit.  The first astronaut was a dog named Laika, which sadly did not return alive.  The name “Sputnik” inspired the name chosen by a hippie-like leader of a new counterculture movement in San Francisco:  “beatnik”.  The beatniks in the late 1950s laid the foundation for the hippies in the 1960s.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the United States and Soviet Union engaged in a “Space Race” to see who could explore and perhaps claim outer space first.  In 1957, the Soviet Union shocked Americans by being the first to launch spacecraft (“Sputnik”) into orbit.  The first astronaut was a dog named Laika, which sadly did not return alive.  The name “Sputnik” inspired the name chosen by a hippie-like leader of a new counterculture movement in San Francisco:  “beatnik”.  The beatniks in the late 1950s laid the foundation for the hippies in the 1960s.

Sputnik alarmed American politicians, who vowed not to remain in second place in this Space Race.  America launched a project in the 1960s to land a man on the Moon, and used a series of spacecraft named “Apollo”.  In 1969, with the immortal words “one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind,” Astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first human to walk on the Moon.  Some conservatives felt that the Soviets never intended to go to the Moon themselves, but wanted Americans to waste money on the project.  It’s unclear what good came of the lunar project, although it did lead to the invention of Teflon, now widely used in cooking.

Sputnik alarmed American politicians, who vowed not to remain in second place in this Space Race.  America launched a project in the 1960s to land a man on the Moon, and used a series of spacecraft named “Apollo”.  In 1969, with the immortal words “one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind,” Astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first human to walk on the Moon.  Some conservatives felt that the Soviets never intended to go to the Moon themselves, but wanted Americans to waste money on the project.  It’s unclear what good came of the lunar project, although it did lead to the invention of Teflon, now widely used in cooking.

The Soviet Union continued a more limited space program, and in the 1970s the two superpowers began to collaborate on docketing their spacecraft together in orbit, creating space shuttles, and even building space stations.  In 1975, the Apollo spacecraft and the Soviet Soyuz successful docked together in space.

The Soviet Union continued a more limited space program, and in the 1970s the two superpowers began to collaborate on docketing their spacecraft together in orbit, creating space shuttles, and even building space stations.  In 1975, the Apollo spacecraft and the Soviet Soyuz successful docked together in space.

Ireland is an island slightly northwest of England.  “Northern Ireland” is in the northeastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland.  Northern Ireland has about a million people, with slightly more Protestants than Catholics.  It is part of the United Kingdom rather than the country of Ireland.  Its Northern Ireland Assembly has 108 elected officials, of whom 59 are “Unionists” (who support remaining in the United Kingdom) and 42 are “Nationalist” (who seek joining the independent Irish Republic).  The other seven do not specify their allegiance.  The largest Christian denominations are Catholic,  the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, the Anglican Church of Ireland, and the Methodist Church, with the total number of Protestant members outnumbering the Catholics.

Ireland is an island slightly northwest of England.  “Northern Ireland” is in the northeastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland.  Northern Ireland has about a million people, with slightly more Protestants than Catholics.  It is part of the United Kingdom rather than the country of Ireland.  Its Northern Ireland Assembly has 108 elected officials, of whom 59 are “Unionists” (who support remaining in the United Kingdom) and 42 are “Nationalist” (who seek joining the independent Irish Republic).  The other seven do not specify their allegiance.  The largest Christian denominations are Catholic,  the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, the Anglican Church of Ireland, and the Methodist Church, with the total number of Protestant members outnumbering the Catholics.

Irish rebellions against British control date back to rebellions in 1798 and 1803, and several secret Irish societies (such as the Defenders and Ribbonmen) played roles in those uprisings.  There was an Irish Republican Army that fought the British at the Battle of Ridgeway.  There was the Easter Rising from April 24 to 30, 1916, during which Irish rebels capture key locations in Dublin and proclaimed an Irish Republic.  The British suppressed this and executed its leaders.  But on 1919, the Irish Republic was declared through the efforts of its leader, Michael Collins (1890-1922). Michael Collins was killed just three years later during an Irish civil war.

Irish rebellions against British control date back to rebellions in 1798 and 1803, and several secret Irish societies (such as the Defenders and Ribbonmen) played roles in those uprisings.  There was an Irish Republican Army that fought the British at the Battle of Ridgeway.  There was the Easter Rising from April 24 to 30, 1916, during which Irish rebels capture key locations in Dublin and proclaimed an Irish Republic.  The British suppressed this and executed its leaders.  But on 1919, the Irish Republic was declared through the efforts of its leader, Michael Collins (1890-1922). Unfortunately, Michael Collins was killed just three years later during an Irish civil war.

Northern Ireland remains part of the United Kingdom by the consent of the majority of the poipulation, and devolved government in Northern Ireland involves cross-community co-operation. This is despite the long campaign of murderous terrorism waged by the IRA, including numerous bombings of 'soft' targets (shops, restaurants, railway stations and the like) in Northern Ireland and Great Britain, and a lessser but none the less deadly campaign of terrorism by Loyalist groups. The IRA terrorism campaign was financed by Americans, and the support of much of the American judiciary made the United States a safe haven for terrorists attacking an American ally.  

Northern Ireland remains in control of the British, despite the objections of the growing Catholic minority.  On “Bloody Sunday” (1972), the Irish held a peaceful march for freedom in Derry, Northern Ireland. The British soldiers responded by shooting thirteen unarmed protesters dead, including six minors, and another died from the wounds a few months later.  Five had been shot in the back.  Army vehicles ran over two protesters.  The British never punished those responsible and several songs (one by John Lennon, and other by U2) commemorate the tragedy.  There is a Christian rock group that dedicates its name to the event, calling themselves “Bloody Sunday.”

 

This event made many Irish feel that complete independence is the only solution, and that armed revolt is the only way to achieve independence.  Membership in the IRA then soared.  At one point they launched handheld missiles on the headquarters of the British prime minister, in the hopes of killing John Major.  He escaped injury.  More recently, violence in Northern Ireland has subsided, but there is no end to the controversy over whether the Protestants or Catholics should rule that northeastern corner of Ireland.

'''B. Terrorism'''

'''B. Terrorism'''

'''D.  Human Rights'''

'''D.  Human Rights'''

In Africa, ethnic cleansing plagued the nations of Rwanda (where the Tutsi minority was slaughtered by the Hutu majority) and in the Middle East, where the Kurds have been persecuted by Turks, Iranians and, most recently, Iraqis.  'Ethnic cleansing' (violent displacement of populations) also took place in the former Yugoslavia in the 1990s.

In Africa, ethnic cleansing plagued the nations of Kwanda (where the Tutsi minority was slaughtered by the Hutu majority) and in the Middle East, where the nomadic Kurds have been persecuted by Turks, Iranians and, most recently, Iraqis.  The former Yugoslavia has also been accused of ethnic cleansing.

International, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) formed in the 1960s to combat human rights abuses.  The most prominent is Amnesty International, which has sought release of political prisoners and also opposed use of the death penalty.  Sometimes these groups can obtain publicity and world pressure more effectively than governments can.  But these groups are often biased in what they complain about, and rarely publicize human rights abuses by communist or Islamic governments.  The persecution of Christians is unlikely to generate any outrage by NGOs or the press, unless (as in Afghanistan) the persecution is an embarrassment to Republicans.

International, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) formed in the 1960s to combat human rights abuses.  The most prominent is Amnesty International, which has sought release of political prisoners and also opposed use of the death penalty.  Sometimes these groups can obtain publicity and world pressure more effectively than governments can.  But these groups are often biased in what they complain about, and rarely publicize human rights abuses by communist or Islamic governments.  The persecution of Christians is unlikely to generate any outrage by NGOs or the press, unless (as in Afghanistan) the persecution is an embarrassment to Republicans.