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Line 1: − {{otheruses}}+ − {{sprot}} − {{Taxobox − | color = pink − | name = Dinosaurs − | fossil_range = [[Triassic]] – [[Cretaceous]]<br/> <small>(excluding [[Aves]])</small> − | image = field_dinos_2.jpg − | image_width = 260px − | image_caption = Mounted skeletons of ''[[Tyrannosaurus]]'' (left) and ''[[Apatosaurus]]'' (right) at the [[American Museum of Natural History|AMNH]]. − | regnum = [[Animal]]ia − | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] − | classis = [[Sauropsid]]a − | subclassis = [[Diapsid]]a − | infraclassis = [[Archosauromorpha]] − | superordo = '''Dinosauria''' [[paraphyly|*]] − | superordo_authority = [[Richard Owen|Owen]], 1842 − | subdivision_ranks = Orders & Suborders − | subdivision = <div> − * '''[[Ornithischia]]''' − ** [[Cerapoda]] − ** [[Thyreophora]] − * '''[[Saurischia]]''' − ** [[Sauropodomorpha]] − ** [[Theropoda]] − − }} − '''Dinosaurs''' were [[vertebrate]] [[animal]]s that dominated [[Landform|terrestrial]] [[ecosystem]]s for over 160 million years, first appearing approximately 230 [[million years ago]]. At the end of the [[Cretaceous]] [[Period (geology)|Period]], approximately 65 million years ago, a catastrophic [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event|extinction event]] ended dinosaurs' dominance on land. One significant group of dinosaurs has survived until the present day; [[Taxonomy|taxonomists]] consider modern [[bird]]s to be the direct descendants of [[theropod]] dinosaurs. − Since the first dinosaur [[fossil]]s were recognized in the nineteenth century, mounted dinosaur skeletons have become major attractions at [[museum]]s around the world. Dinosaurs have become a part of world culture and remain consistently popular among children and adults alike. They have been featured in best-selling books and films such as ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', and new discoveries are regularly covered by the [[News media|media]].+ − The term ''dinosaur'' is sometimes used informally to describe other prehistoric reptiles, such as the [[pelycosaur]] ''[[Dimetrodon]]'', the winged [[pterosaur]]s, and the aquatic [[ichthyosaur]]s, [[plesiosaur]]s and [[mosasaur]]s, although technically none of these were dinosaurs.+ + − + − + − [[Image:Triceratops AMNH 01.jpg|right|thumb|225px|''[[Triceratops]]'' [[skeleton]] at the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in New York City]] − The [[taxon]] '''Dinosauria''' was formally named by the [[English people|English]] [[palaeontology|palaeontologist]], [[Richard Owen]], in 1842 as "a distinct tribe or sub-order of Saurian Reptiles".<ref>Owen, R. (1842). "Report on British Fossil Reptiles." Part II. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Plymouth, England.</ref> The term is derived from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words δεινός (''deinos'' meaning "terrible", "fearsome," or "formidable") and σαύρα (''saura'' meaning "lizard" or "reptile"). Owen chose the name to express his awe at the size and majesty of the extinct animals,<ref name=FBS97>Farlow, J.O., and Brett-Surman, M.K. (1997). Preface. In: Farlow, J.O., and Brett-Surman, M.K. (eds.). ''The Complete Dinosaur.'' Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, ix-xi. ISBN 0-253-33349-0</ref> not out of fear or trepidation at their size and often-formidable arsenal of teeth and claws. − Dinosaurs were an extremely varied group of animals; according to a 2006 study, 527 dinosaur genera have been identified with certainty so far, and 1,844 genera are believed to have existed.<ref>Fountain, Henry. "Many more dinosaurs still to be found." ''New York Times'': 12 Sept. 2006. [http://www.nytimes.com/glogin?URI=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/12/science/12observ.html&OQ=_rQ3D1Q26refQ3Dscience&OP=72daafdfQ2FQ25Q3BQ7CQ2AQ25ml(bQ5BllQ7DQ2BQ25Q2B))3Q25)9Q25BQ2BQ25b(rQ7C8(Q7CQ25BQ2BlQ2AbQ7CQ5Bjf-Q7Dga]</ref><ref>Wang, S.C., and Dodson, P. (2006). Estimating the Diversity of Dinosaurs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 103:37, pp. 13601-13605. [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/103/37/13601][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=16954187&dopt=Abstract]</ref> Some were [[herbivore|herbivorous]], others [[carnivore|carnivorous]]. Some dinosaurs were [[biped]]s, some were [[quadruped]]s, and others, such as ''[[Ammosaurus]]'' and ''[[Iguanodon]]'', could walk just as easily on two or four legs. Regardless of body type, nearly all known dinosaurs were well-adapted for a predominantly terrestrial, rather than aquatic or aerial, habitat.+ − + − All dinosaurs so far discovered share certain modifications to the ancestral [[archosaur]]ian skeleton. Although some later groups of dinosaurs featured further modified versions of these traits, they are considered typical across Dinosauria; the earliest dinosaurs had them and passed them on to all their descendants. Such common structures across a taxonomic group are called [[synapomorphy|synapomorphies]].+ + − Dinosaur synapomorphies include: an elongated crest on the [[humerus]] (upper arm bone) for [[clavipectoral triangle|deltopectoral]] muscles; a shelf on the back-rear of the [[ilium]] (main hip bone); a [[tibia]] (shin) with its lower edge expanded side to side and a flange pointing to the rear and outside; and an ascending projection on the [[talus bone|astragalus]] (one of the ankle bones) which locks it to the tibia.<ref name=MJB04>Benton, M.J. (2004). Origin and relationships of dinosaurs. In: Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P., and Osmólska, H. (eds.). ''The Dinosauria'' (second edition). University of California Press:Berkeley, 7-19. ISBN 0-520-24209-2.</ref>+ − Several other characteristics are common to many dinosaurs, but are either also seen in some other groups of [[archosaurs]], or are not present in all early dinosaurs. These include: an elongate [[scapula]] (shoulder blade); asymmetrical [[hand]]; a [[sacrum]] (the region of the vertebral column to which the [[pelvis]] attaches) composed of three or more fused [[vertebra]]e;<ref name=MJB04/> offset head to the femur; loss of the postfrontal bone in the skull;<ref name=SN07>Nesbitt, S. (2007). The anatomy of ''Effigia okeeffeae'' (Archosauria, Suchia), theropod-like convergence, and the distribution of related taxa. ''Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History'' '''302''':1-84.</ref> and an open ("perforate") [[acetabulum]] (hip socket with a hole right through the center of the inside surface).<ref name=LARB99>Langer, M.C., Abdala, F., Richter, M., and Benton, M.J. (1999). A sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Upper Triassic (Carnian) of southern Brazil. ''Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Paris: Sciences de la terre et des planètes'' '''329''':511-517.</ref> Recent discoveries have made it more difficult to present a universally agreed list of dinosaur synapomorphies. For example, many publications from before 1995 state that a perforate acetabulum is a dinosaur synapomorphy, but this is now doubtful: ''[[Saturnalia (dinosaur)|Saturnalia]]'', a [[basal]] [[sauropodomorph]], has at best a semi-perforate acetabulum (the hole does not go right through the inner surface of the hip-socket),<ref name=LARB99/> and that of ''[[Guaibasaurus]]'' is nearly closed.<ref name=MCL04>Langer, M.C. (2004). Basal Saurischia. In: Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P., and Osmólska, H. (eds.). ''The Dinosauria'' (second edition). University of California Press:Berkeley, 25-46. ISBN 0-520-24209-2.</ref> Similarly, ''[[Herrerasaurus]]'' has only two sacral vertebrae.<ref name=MCL04/> In addition, other animals have been found that [[convergent evolution|closely resemble]] early dinosaurs in important characteristics, such as ''[[Shuvosaurus]]'', ''[[Effigia]]'', and ''[[Revueltosaurus]]''.+ − [[Image:Edmontonia_dinosaur.png|190px|left|thumb|''[[Edmontonia]]'' was an "armored dinosaur" of the group [[Ankylosauria]].]]+ − '''Other shared anatomical features'''+ − Scientists agree that a variety of other anatomical features were shared by most dinosaurs that were [[plesiomorphy|inherited from their ancestors]]. These include: forelimbs shorter and lighter than hind limbs; two pairs of holes in the temporal region of the skull (i.e. a [[diapsid]] skull), a hole in the snout and another in the lower jaw (two [[archosaur]]ian characteristics); and a long neck with an S-shaped curve.<ref name=TRHJ00>Holtz, Jr., T.R. (2000). Classification and evolution of the dinosaur groups. In: Paul, G.S. (ed.). ''The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs.'' St. Martin's Press:New York, 140-168. ISBN 0-312-26226-4.</ref>+ − The hip joint arrangement described above allowed an erect stance, in which hind limbs were situated directly beneath the body or 'underslung'. This stance is like that of most mammals today but unlike that of other reptiles, which have a less erect posture and limbs splayed out to either side.<ref name=MJB00>Benton, M.J. (2004). ''Vertebrate Paleontology'' (second edition). Blackwell Publishers:London, xii-452. ISBN 0-632-05614-2.</ref> The vertical action of the limbs in dinosaurs gave them increased stamina by enabling them to move and breathe easily at the same time, unlike 'sprawling' reptiles which suffer from [[Carrier's constraint]].+ − '''Taxonomic definition'''+ − Under [[phylogenetics|phylogenetic taxonomy]], dinosaurs are defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of ''[[Triceratops]]'' and modern [[birds]]. It has also been suggested that Dinosauria be defined as all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of ''[[Megalosaurus]]'' and ''[[Iguanodon]]'', because these were two of the three genera cited by Richard Owen when he recognized the Dinosauria. They are divided into [[Ornithischia]] (''bird-hipped'') and [[Saurischia]] (''lizard-hipped''), depending upon [[pelvis|pelvic]] structure. Ornithischian dinosaurs had a four-pronged pelvic configuration, incorporating a caudally-directed (rear-pointing) [[pubis]] bone with (most commonly) a forward-pointing process. By contrast, the pelvic structure of saurischian dinosaurs was three-pronged, and featured a pubis bone directed cranially, or forwards, only.<ref name=MJB00/> Ornithischia includes all [[taxon|taxa]] sharing a more recent common ancestor with ''Triceratops'' than with Saurischia, while Saurischia includes those taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with ''birds'' than with Ornithischia. + − [[Image:Stego_fieldmuseum.jpg|right|thumb|225px|''[[Stegosaurus]]'' skeleton, [[Field Museum]], [[Chicago]].]]+ − There is an almost universal consensus among paleontologists that [[bird]]s are the descendants of [[theropoda|theropod]] dinosaurs. Using the strict [[cladistics|cladistical]] definition that all descendants of a single common ancestor are related, modern birds ''are'' dinosaurs and dinosaurs are, therefore, not extinct. Modern [[bird]]s are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup [[Maniraptora]], which are [[Coelurosauria|coelurosaur]]s, which are [[Theropoda|theropods]], which are [[saurischia]]ns, which are dinosaurs.<ref name=KP04>Padian, K. (2004). Basal Avialae. In: Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P., and Osmólska, H. (eds.). ''The Dinosauria'' (second edition). University of California Press:Berkeley, 210-231. ISBN 0-520-24209-2.</ref> − However, referring to birds as 'avian dinosaurs' and to all other dinosaurs as 'non-avian dinosaurs' is cumbersome. Birds are still referred to as birds, at least in popular usage and among [[ornithologist]]s. It is also technically correct to refer to birds as a distinct group under the older [[Linnaean classification]] system, which accepts [[paraphyletic]] taxa that exclude some descendants of a single common ancestor. Paleontologists mostly use [[cladistics]], which classifies birds as dinosaurs, but some biologists of the older generation do not. + − + − + − [[Image:Diplodocus size comparison.png|thumb|320px|Comparative size of ''[[Diplodocus]]''; human figures provide scale.]]+ − − While the evidence is incomplete, it is clear that, as a group, dinosaurs were large. Even by dinosaur standards, the [[Sauropoda|sauropod]]s were gigantic. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest were an [[order of magnitude]] more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth. Giant prehistoric [[mammal]]s such as the ''[[Indricotherium]]'' and the Columbian [[mammoth]] were dwarfed by the giant sauropods, and only a handful of modern aquatic animals approach or surpass them in size — most notably the [[blue whale]], which reaches up to 190,000 kg (209 tons) and 33.5 m (110 ft) in length. − − Most dinosaurs, however, were much smaller than the giant sauropods. Current evidence suggests that dinosaur average size varied through the Triassic, early Jurassic, late Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.<ref>[http://dml.cmnh.org/1998May/msg00048.html Dinosaur size varied in different periods] Working hypothesis for body size.</ref> According to paleontologist Bill Erickson, estimates of median dinosaur weight range from 500 kg to 5 [[tonne]]s; a recent study of 63 dinosaur genera yielded an average weight greater than 850 kg — comparable to the weight of a grizzly bear — and a median weight of nearly 2 tons, or about as much as a giraffe. This contrasts sharply with the size of modern mammals; on average, mammals weigh only 863 grams, or about as much as a large rodent. The smallest dinosaur was bigger than two-thirds of all current mammals; the majority of dinosaurs were bigger than all but 2% of living mammals.<ref>[http://microlnx.com/dinosaurs/Giantism.html Origin of Dinosaurs and Mammals - Erickson] Soruce of Erickson quote.</ref> − − '''Largest and smallest dinosaurs''' − − Only a tiny percentage of animals ever fossilize, and most of these remain buried in the earth. Few of the specimens that are recovered are complete skeletons, and impressions of skin and other soft tissues are rare. Rebuilding a complete skeleton by comparing the size and morphology of bones to those of similar, better-known species is an inexact art, and reconstructing the muscles and other organs of the living animal is, at best, a process of educated guesswork. As a result, scientists will probably never be certain of the [[largest organism|largest and smallest dinosaurs]]. − − [[Image:Sauroposeidon dinosaur.svg|thumb|160px|right|Comparative size of ''[[Sauroposeidon]]''.]] − [[Image:Human-eoraptor_size_comparison(v2).png|thumb|140px|left|Comparative size of ''[[Eoraptor]]''.]] − The tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from good skeletons is ''[[Brachiosaurus|Brachiosaurus brancai]]'' (also known as ''[[Giraffatitan]]''). Its remains were discovered in [[Tanzania]] between 1907–12. Bones from multiple similarly-sized individuals were incorporated into the skeleton now mounted and on display at the [[Humboldt Museum]] of [[Berlin]];<ref name=EC68>Colbert, E.H. (1968). ''Men and Dinosaurs: The Search in Field and Laboratory.'' E. P. Dutton & Company:New York, vii + 283 p. ISBN 0140212884.</ref> this mount is 12 m (38 ft) tall, 22.5 m (74 ft) long, and would have belonged to an animal that weighed between 30,000–60,000 kg (33–66 [[short ton]]s). The longest complete dinosaur is the 27 m (89 ft) long ''[[Diplodocus]]'', which was discovered in [[Wyoming]] in the [[United States]] and displayed in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]]'s [[Carnegie Natural History Museum]] in 1907. − − There were larger dinosaurs, but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of fragmentary fossils. Most of the largest [[herbivore|herbivorous]] specimens on record were all discovered in the 1970s or later, and include the massive ''[[Argentinosaurus]]'', which may have weighed 80,000–100,000 kg (88–121 tons); the longest, the 40 m (130 ft) long ''[[Supersaurus]]''; and the tallest, the 18 m (60 ft) ''[[Sauroposeidon]]'', which could have reached a sixth-floor window. The longest of them all may have been ''[[Amphicoelias|Amphicoelias fragillimus]]'', known only from a now lost partial vertebral [[neural arch]] described in 1878. Extrapolating from the illustration of this bone, the animal may have been 58 m (190 ft) long and weighed over 120,000 kg (132 tons),<ref name=KC06>Carpenter, K. (2006). Biggest of the big: a critical re-evaluation of the mega-sauropod ''Amphicoelias fragillimus''. In: Foster, J.R., and Lucas, S.G. (eds.). ''Paleontology and Geology of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation.'' New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin '''36''': 131-138.[https://scientists.dmns.org/sites/kencarpenter/PDFs%20of%20publications/Amphicoelias.pdf]</ref> heavier than all known dinosaurs except possibly the poorly known ''[[Bruhathkayosaurus]]'', which could have weighed 175,000-220,000 kg (193-243 tons). The largest known [[carnivore|carnivorous]] dinosaur was ''[[Spinosaurus]]'', reaching a length of 16-18 meters (53-60 ft), and weighing in at 9 tons.<ref name=SMBM06>dal Sasso, C., Maganuco, S., Buffetaut, E., and Mendez, M.A. (2006). New information on the skull of the enigmatic theropod ''Spinosaurus'', with remarks on its sizes and affinities. ''Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology'' '''25'''(4):888-896.</ref> Other large meat-eaters included ''[[Giganotosaurus]]'', ''[[Mapusaurus]]'', ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' and ''[[Carcharodontosaurus]]''. − − Not including modern birds like the [[bee hummingbird]], the smallest dinosaurs known were about the size of a [[crow]] or a [[chicken]]. The theropods ''[[Microraptor]]'' and ''[[Parvicursor]]'' were both under 60 cm (2 ft) in length. − − ===Behavior=== − [[Image:Mayasaurus.jpg|thumb|210px|A nesting ground of ''[[Maiasaura]]'' was discovered in 1978.]] − Interpretations of dinosaur behavior are generally based on the pose of body fossils and their [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]], [[computer simulation]]s of their [[biomechanics]], and comparisons with modern animals in similar [[ecological niche]]s. As such, the current understanding of dinosaur behavior relies on speculation, and will likely remain controversial for the foreseeable future. However, there is general agreement that some behaviors which are common in crocodiles and birds, dinosaurs' closest living relatives, were also common among dinosaurs. − − The first perceived direct evidence of [[herd]]ing behavior was the 1878 discovery of 31 ''[[Iguanodon]]'' dinosaurs which were thought to have perished together in [[Bernissart]], [[Belgium]], after they fell into a deep, flooded [[sinkhole]] and drowned.<ref>Johan Yans, Jean Dejax, Denise Pons, Christian Dupuis, Philippe Taquet.(2005) Palaeontological and geodynamical implications of the palynological dating of the wealden facies sediments of Bernissart (Mons Basin, Belgium). ''C. R. Palevol 4 (2005)'' 135–150.</ref> Despite the deposition of those skeletons being now regarded as more gradual,<ref>[http://dml.cmnh.org/2001Jul/msg00103.html]Deposition of ''Iguanodon'' skeletons occurred in at least 3 different events.</ref> other, well supported, mass death sites were subsequently discovered. Those, along with multiple trackways, suggest that [[herd]] or [[Pack hunter|pack]] behavior was common in many dinosaur species. Trackways of hundreds or even thousands of herbivores indicate that [[Hadrosaurid|duck-bill]]s (hadrosaurids) may have moved in great herds, like the [[American Bison]] or the African [[Springbok Antelope|Springbok]]. Sauropod tracks document that these animals traveled in groups composed of several different species, at least in [[Oxford]], England,<ref>Day, J.J. and Upchurch, P. (2002). Sauropod Trackways, Evolution, and Behavior. ''Science'' 296:1659. [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/05/0529_020529_sauropods.html See commentary on the article]</ref> and others kept their young in the middle of the herd for defense according to trackways at Davenport Ranch, [[Texas]]. Dinosaurs may have congregated in herds for defense, for [[migration|migratory]] purposes, or to provide protection for their young. − − [[Jack Horner (paleontologist)|Jack Horner]]'s 1978 discovery of a ''[[Maiasaura]]'' ("good mother dinosaur") [[nest]]ing ground in [[Montana]] demonstrated that parental care continued long after birth among the [[ornithopod]]s.<ref>Lessem, D. and Glut, D.F. (1993). ''The Dinosaur Society's Dinosaur Encyclopedia''. Random House Inc. ISBN 0-679-41770-2. [http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu/faq/dino-faqs/pdq76.html See commentary on the article]</ref><ref>[http://www.browningmontana.com/dinosaurs.html Juvenile Tyrannosaur] A juvenile [[Tyrannosaur]] skeleton was found.</ref> There is also evidence that other Cretaceous-era dinosaurs, like the [[Patagonia]]n sauropod ''[[Saltasaurus]]'' (1997 discovery), had similar nesting behaviors, and that the animals congregated in huge nesting colonies like those of [[penguin]]s. The [[Mongolia]]n [[maniraptora]]n ''[[Oviraptor]]'' was discovered in a [[chicken]]-like [[brood]]ing position in 1993, which may mean it was covered with an insulating layer of feathers that kept the [[egg (biology)|eggs]] warm.<ref>[http://search.eb.com/dinosaurs/dinosaurs/BRa.html Oviraptor nesting] [[Oviraptor]] nests or [[Protoceratops]]?</ref> Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among sauropods and ornithopods from the [[Isle of Skye]] in northwestern [[Scotland]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/3255494.stm Dinosaur family tracks] Footprints show maternal instinct after leaving the nest.</ref> Nests and eggs have been found for most major groups of dinosaurs, and it appears likely that dinosaurs communicated with their young, in a manner similar to modern birds and crocodiles. − − [[Image:Centrosaurus_dinosaur.png|thumb|left|225px|Artist's rendering of two ''[[Centrosaurus]]'', herbivorous [[ceratopsidae|ceratopsid]] dinosaurs from the late Cretaceous fauna of North America.]] − The [[Sagittal crest|crest]]s and frills of some dinosaurs, like the [[marginocephalia]]ns, [[theropod]]s and [[lambeosaurin]]es, may have been too fragile to be used for active defense, so they were likely used for sexual or aggressive displays, though little is known about dinosaur mating and [[territory (animal)|territorialism]]. The nature of dinosaur [[Animal communication|communication]] also remains enigmatic, and is an active area of research. For example, recent evidence suggests that the hollow crests of the lambeosaurines may have functioned as [[resonance chamber]]s used for a wide range of [[vocalization]]s. − − From a behavioral standpoint, one of the most valuable dinosaur fossils was discovered in the [[Gobi Desert]] in 1971. It included a ''[[Velociraptor]]'' attacking a ''[[Protoceratops]]'',<ref>[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/fightingdinos/ex-fd.html Joined forever in death] The discovery of two [[fossil]] dinosaurs entangled together proved many theories.</ref> proving that dinosaurs did indeed attack and eat each other. While [[cannibal]]istic behavior among [[theropod]]s is no surprise,<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/12/1219_021219_dinocannibal.html Cannibalistic Dinosaur] The mystery of a dinosaur [[cannibal]].</ref> this too was confirmed by tooth marks from Madagascar in 2003.<ref>Rogers, R.R., Krause, D.W. and Rogers, K.C. (2003). Cannibalism in the Madagascan dinosaur Majungatholus atopus. ''Nature'' 422:515-518.[http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/03/pr0336.htm See commentary on the article].</ref> − − Based on current fossil evidence, there seem to have been no burrowing species of dinosaur and few climbing species. Since the later mammalian radiation in the [[Cenozoic]] produced many burrowing and climbing species, the lack of evidence for similar dinosaur species is somewhat surprising. Because most dinosaur species seem to have relied on land-based locomotion, a good understanding of how dinosaurs moved on the ground is key to models of dinosaur behavior; the science of [[biomechanics]], in particular, has provided significant insight in this area. For example, studies of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on dinosaurs' skeletal structure have investigated how fast dinosaurs could run,<ref>[http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/Tracks/Report7/Speed.html Gait and Dinosaur speed] Gait and his formula on estimating a dinosaur's speed.</ref><ref>[http://www.shef.ac.uk/~es/DINOC01/dinocal1.html Calculate your own Dinosaur speed] More on Gait and his speed calculations.</ref> whether [[diplodocid]]s could create [[sonic boom]]s via [[whip]]-like tail snapping,<ref>Douglas, K. and Young, S. (1998). The dinosaur detectives. ''New Scientist'' 2130:24. [http://members.tripod.com/~megalania/recap.html See commentary on the article].</ref> whether giant theropods had to slow down when rushing for food to avoid fatal injuries,<ref>Hecht, J. (1998). The deadly dinos that took a dive. ''New Scientist'' 2130. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/78905.stm See commentary on the article].</ref> and whether sauropods could float.<ref>Henderson, D.M. (2003). Effects of stomach stones on the buoyancy and equilibrium of a floating crocodilian: A computational analysis. ''Canadian Journal of Zoology'' 81:1346-1357. [http://www.nserc.ca/news/features/dinosaurs_e.htm See commentary on the article].</ref> − − ==Evolution of dinosaurs== − [[Image:Coelophysis_skeleton.jpg|right|thumb|210px|Cast of a ''[[Coelophysis]]'' skeleton from the upper [[Triassic]], one of the most well-known early dinosaurs.]] − Dinosaurs diverged from their [[archosaur]] ancestors approximately 230 million years ago during the Middle to Late [[Triassic]] period, roughly 20 million years after the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] wiped out an estimated 95% of all [[life on Earth]].<ref>Citation for Permian/Triassic extinction event, percentage of animal species that went extinct. [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/02/050223130549.htm See commentary]</ref><ref>Another citation for P/T event data. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2002/dayearthdied.shtml See commentary]</ref> [[Radiometric dating]] of fossils from the early dinosaur [[genus]] ''[[Eoraptor]]'' establishes its presence in the fossil record at this time. Paleontologists believe ''Eoraptor'' resembles the [[Common descent|common ancestor]] of all dinosaurs;<ref>Hayward, T. (1997). The First Dinosaurs. ''Dinosaur Cards''. Orbis Publishing Ltd. D36040612.</ref> if this is true, its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal predators.<ref>Sereno, P.C., C.A. Forster, R.R. Rogers, and A.M. Monetta. 1993. Primitive dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and the early evolution of Dinosauria. Nature 361:64-66.</ref> The discovery of primitive, dinosaur-like ornithodirans such as ''[[Marasuchus]]'' and ''[[Lagerpeton]]'' in [[Argentina|Argentinian]] [[Middle Triassic]] strata supports this view; analysis of recovered fossils suggests that these animals were indeed small, bipedal predators. − − The first few lines of primitive dinosaurs [[Adaptive radiation|diversified rapidly]] through the rest of the Triassic period; dinosaur species quickly evolved the specialized features and range of sizes needed to exploit nearly every terrestrial [[ecological niche]]. During the period of dinosaur predominance, which encompassed the ensuing [[Jurassic]] and [[Cretaceous]] periods, nearly every known land animal larger than 1 meter in length was a dinosaur. − − The [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]], which occurred approximately 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, caused the extinction of all dinosaurs except for the line that had already given rise to the first birds. Other [[diapsid]] species related to the dinosaurs also survived the event. − − ==Study of dinosaurs== − Knowledge about dinosaurs is derived from a variety of fossil and non-fossil records, including [[fossil]]ized [[bone]]s, [[feces]], [[trackway]]s, [[gastrolith]]s, [[feather]]s, impressions of [[skin]], [[Viscus|internal organs]] and [[soft tissue]]s.<ref name="softtissue">Dal Sasso, C. and Signore, M. (1998). Exceptional soft-tissue preservation in a theropod dinosaur from Italy. ''Nature'' 292:383-387. [http://www.dinosauria.com/jdp/misc/scipionyx.html See commentary on the article]</ref><ref>Schweitzer, M.H., Wittmeyer, J.L. and Horner, J.R. (2005). Soft-Tissue Vessels and Cellular Preservation in Tyrannosaurus rex. ''Science'' 307:1952 - 1955. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4379577.stm See commentary on the article]</ref> Many fields of study contribute to our understanding of dinosaurs, including [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[biology]], and the [[earth sciences]] (of which [[paleontology]] is a sub-discipline). − − Dinosaur remains have been found on every continent on Earth, including [[Antarctica]]. Numerous fossils of the same dinosaur species have been found on completely different continents, corroborating the generally-accepted theory that all land masses were at one time connected in a super-continent called [[Pangaea]]. Pangaea began to break apart during the [[Triassic]] period roughly 230 million years ago.<ref>Evans, J. (1998). ''Ultimate Visual Dictionary - 1998 Edition''. Dorling Kindersley Books. 66-69. ISBN 1-871854-00-8.</ref> − − ===The current "dinosaur renaissance"=== − {{seealso|List of U.S. state dinosaurs}} − [[Image:Deinonychus_skull.jpg|200px|thumb|Model of a ''[[Deinonychus]]'' skull.]] − The field of dinosaur research has enjoyed a surge in activity that began in the 1970s and is ongoing. This was triggered, in part, by [[John Ostrom]]'s discovery of ''[[Deinonychus]]'', an active, vicious [[predator]] that may have been [[warm-blooded]], in marked contrast to the then-prevailing image of dinosaurs as sluggish and [[cold-blooded]]. [[Vertebrate paleontology]], arguably the primary scientific discipline involved in dinosaur research, has become a global [[science]]. Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexploited regions, including [[India]], [[South America]], [[Madagascar]], [[Antarctica]], and most significantly in [[China]] (the amazingly well-preserved [[feathered dinosaurs]] in [[China]] have further consolidated the link between dinosaurs and their conjectured living descendants, modern [[bird]]s). The widespread application of [[cladistics]], which rigorously analyzes the relationships between biological organisms, has also proved tremendously useful in [[scientific classification|classifying]] dinosaurs. Cladistic analysis, among other modern techniques, helps to compensate for an often incomplete and fragmentary [[fossil record]]. − − ===Classification=== − {{main|Dinosaur classification}} − − Dinosaurs (including birds) are [[archosaur]]s, like modern [[crocodilia|crocodilian]]s. Archosaurs' [[diapsid]] skulls have two holes located where the jaw muscles attach, called [[temporal fenestrae]]. Most reptiles (including birds) are diapsids; mammals, with only one temporal fenestra, are called [[synapsid]]s; and [[turtle]]s, with no temporal fenestra, are [[anapsid]]s. Anatomically, dinosaurs share many other archosaur characteristics, including teeth that grow from sockets rather than as direct extensions of the jawbones. Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait. Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodylians sprawl out to either side. All dinosaurs were land animals. − − Many other types of reptiles lived at the same time as the dinosaurs. Some of these are commonly, but incorrectly, thought of as dinosaurs, including [[plesiosaur]]s (which are not closely related to the dinosaurs) and [[pterosaurs]], which developed separately from reptilian ancestors in the late Triassic period. − − Collectively, dinosaurs are usually regarded as a [[superorder]] or an unranked [[clade]]. They are divided into two [[Order (biology)|orders]], the ''[[Saurischia]]'' and the ''[[Ornithischia]]'', on the basis of their hip structure. Saurischians ('lizard-hipped', from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''sauros'' (''σαυρος'') meaning 'lizard' and ''ischion'' (''ισχιον'') meaning 'hip joint') are dinosaurs that originally retained the hip structure of their ancestors. They include all the [[Theropoda|theropods]] (bipedal [[carnivore]]s) and [[Sauropoda|sauropod]]s (long-necked [[herbivore]]s). Ornithischians ('bird-hipped', from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''ornitheos'' (''ορνιθειος'') meaning 'of a bird' and ''ischion'' (''ισχιον'') meaning 'hip joint') is the other dinosaurian order, most of which were [[quadruped]]al herbivores. ('''NB:''' the terms "lizard hip" and "bird-hip" are misnomers — birds evolved from dinosaurs with "lizard hips".) − − <center><gallery> − Image:Saurischia.png|[[Saurischia]]n pelvis structure (left side) − Image:Tyrannosaurus pelvis left.JPG|''[[Tyrannosaurus]]'' pelvis (showing saurischian structure - left side) − Image:Ornithischia.png|[[Ornithischia]]n pelvis structure (left side). − Image:Edmontosaurus pelvis left.JPG|''[[Edmontosaurus]]'' pelvis (showing ornithischian structure - left side) − </gallery></center> − − The following is a simplified classification of dinosaur families. A more detailed version can be found at [[List of dinosaur classifications]]. − − The dagger (†) is used to indicate taxa that are [[extinct]]. − − ===Order Saurischia=== − [[Image:Struthiomimus altus jconway.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[Struthiomimus]]'', an ostrich-like [[theropod]] dinosaur.]] − * †Infraorder [[Herrerasaur|Herrerasauria]] − * Suborder [[Theropoda]] − ** †Infraorder [[Coelophysoidea]] − ** †Infraorder [[Ceratosauria]] − *** Family [[Ceratosauridae]] − *** Family [[Abelisauridae]] − ** Clade [[Tetanurae]] − *** †Superfamily [[Megalosauroidea]] − **** Family [[Megalosauridae]] − **** Family [[Spinosauridae]] − *** †Infraorder [[Carnosauria]] − *** Clade [[Coelurosauria]] − **** †Superfamily [[Tyrannosauridae|Tyrannosauroidea]] − **** †Infraorder [[Ornithomimosauria]] − **** †Infraorder [[Therizinosaur|Segnosauria]] − **** †Infraorder [[Oviraptorosauria]] − **** †Infraorder [[Deinonychosauria]] − ***** Family [[Dromaeosauridae]] − ***** Family [[Troodontidae]] − [[Image:Brachiosaurus-brancai jconway.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[Brachiosaurus]]'' is an example of a [[sauropod]] dinosaur.]] − * †Suborder [[Sauropodomorpha]] − ** Infraorder [[Prosauropoda]] − *** Family [[Riojasauridae]] − *** Family [[Plateosauridae]] − *** Family [[Massospondylidae]] − ** Infraorder [[Sauropoda]] − *** Family [[Anchisauridae]] − *** Family [[Melanorosauridae]] − *** Family [[Blikanasauridae]] − *** Family [[Vulcanodontidae]] − *** Family [[Cetiosauridae]] − *** Family [[Omeisauridae]] − *** Clade [[Turiasauria]] − *** Clade [[Neosauropoda]] − **** Superamily [[Diplodocoidea]] − **** Family [[Camarasauridae]] − **** Family [[Brachiosauridae]] − **** Superfamily [[Titanosauroidea]] − − === Order Ornithischia === − [[Image:Ornithopods_jconway.jpg|300px|thumb|Various [[Cerapoda|cerapod]] dinosaurs. Far left: ''[[Camptosaurus]]'', left: ''[[Iguanodon]]'', centre background: ''[[Shantungosaurus]]'', centre foreground: ''[[Dryosaurus]]'', right: ''[[Corythosaurus]]'', far right (small): ''[[Heterodontosaurus]]'', far right (large): ''[[Tenontosaurus]]''.]] − * †Family [[Fabrosauridae]] − * †Suborder [[Thyreophora]] − ** Family [[Scelidosauridae]] − ** Infraorder [[Stegosauria]] − ** Infraorder [[Ankylosauria]] − *** Family [[Nodosauridae]] − *** Family [[Ankylosauridae]] − * †Suborder [[Cerapoda]] − ** Family [[Heterodontosauridae]] − ** Infraorder [[Ornithopoda]] − *** Family [[Hypsilophodontidae]] − *** Family [[Iguanodontidae]] − *** Superfamily [[Hadrosauroidea]] − ** Clade [[Marginocephalia]] − *** Infraorder [[Pachycephalosauria]] − *** Infraorder [[Ceratopsia]] − **** Family [[Psittacosauridae]] − **** Family [[Protoceratopsidae]] − **** Family [[Ceratopsidae]] − − ==Areas of debate== − ===Warm-bloodedness=== − {{main|Warm-bloodedness of dinosaurs}} − [[Image:Palais_de_la_Decouverte_Tyrannosaurus_rex_p1050042.jpg|210px|thumb|right|''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' skull and upper vertebral column, Palais de la Découverte, Paris.]] − A vigorous debate on the subject of temperature regulation in dinosaurs has been ongoing since the 1960s. Originally, scientists broadly disagreed as to whether dinosaurs were capable of regulating their body temperatures at all. More recently, dinosaur [[endotherm]]y has become the consensus view, and debate has focused on the mechanisms of temperature regulation. − − After dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were [[ectotherm]]ic creatures: "terrible [[lizard]]s" as their name suggests. This supposed cold-bloodedness implied that dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, comparable to modern reptiles, which need external sources of heat in order to regulate their body temperature. Dinosaur ectothermy remained a prevalent view until [[Robert T. Bakker|Robert T. "Bob" Bakker]], an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968. − − Modern evidence indicates that dinosaurs thrived in cooler temperate climates, and that at least some dinosaur species must have regulated their body temperature by internal biological means (perhaps aided by the animals' bulk). Evidence of [[endotherm]]ism in dinosaurs includes the discovery of [[polar dinosaurs in Australia]] and [[Antarctica]] (where they would have experienced a cold, dark six-month winter), the discovery of dinosaurs whose feathers may have provided regulatory insulation, and analysis of blood-vessel structures that are typical of endotherms within dinosaur bone. Skeletal structures suggest that theropods and other dinosaurs had active lifestyles better suited to an endothermic cardiovascular system, while sauropods exhibit fewer endothermic characteristics. It is certainly possible that some dinosaurs were endothermic while others were not. Scientific debate over the specifics continues.<ref>Parsons, K.M. (2001). ''Drawing Out Leviathan''. Indiana University Press. 22-48. ISBN 0-253-33937-5.</ref> − − Complicating the debate is the fact that warm-bloodedness can emerge based on more than one mechanism. Most discussions of dinosaur endothermy tend to compare them to average birds or mammals, which expend energy to elevate body temperature above that of the environment. Small birds and mammals also possess [[thermal insulation|insulation]], such as [[fat]], [[fur]], or [[feather]]s, which slows down heat loss. However, large mammals, such as elephants, face a different problem because of their relatively small ratio of surface area to volume ([[J. B. S. Haldane|Haldane]]'s principle). This ratio compares the volume of an animal with the area of its skin: as an animal gets bigger, its surface area increases more slowly than its volume. At a certain point, the amount of heat radiated away through the skin drops below the amount of heat produced inside the body, forcing animals to use additional methods to avoid overheating. In the case of elephants, they are hairless, and have large ears which increase their surface area, and have behavioral adaptations as well (such as using the trunk to spray water on themselves and mud wallowing). These behaviors increase cooling through evaporation. − − Large dinosaurs would presumably have had to deal with similar issues; their body size suggest they lost heat relatively slowly to the surrounding air, and so could have been what are called [[gigantothermy|inertial homeotherms]], animals that are warmer than their environments through sheer size rather than through special adaptations like those of birds or mammals. However, so far this theory fails to account for the vast number of dog- and goat-sized dinosaur species which made up the bulk of the ecosystem during the Mesozoic period. − − ===Feathered dinosaurs and the bird connection=== − {{main|Feathered dinosaurs}} − {{main|Dinosaur-bird connection}} − − Birds and non-avian dinosaurs share many features. Birds share over a hundred distinct anatomical features with [[theropod]] dinosaurs, which are generally accepted to have been their closest ancient relatives.<ref>Mayr, G., Pohl, B. and Peters, D.S. (2005). A Well-Preserved Archaeopteryx Specimen with Theropod Features. ''Science'' 310:1483-1486.[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1201_051201_archaeopteryx_2.html See commentary on the article].</ref> − − '''Feathers''' − [[Image:SArchaeopteryxBerlin2.jpg|thumb|210px|right|The famous Berlin Specimen of ''[[Archaeopteryx|Archaeopteryx lithographica]]''.]] − − ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'', the first good example of a "feathered dinosaur", was discovered in 1861. The initial specimen was found in the [[Solnhofen limestone]] in southern Germany, which is a ''[[Lagerstätten|lagerstätte]]'', a rare and remarkable geological formation known for its superbly detailed fossils. Archaeopteryx is a [[transitional fossil]], with features clearly intermediate between those of modern reptiles and birds. Brought to light just two years after Darwin's seminal ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', its discovery spurred the nascent debate between proponents of [[evolutionary biology]] and [[creationism]]. This early bird is so dinosaur-like that, without a clear impression of feathers in the surrounding rock, at least one specimen was mistaken for ''[[Compsognathus]]''.<ref name=PW88>Wellnhofer, P. (1988). Ein neuer Exemplar von ''Archaeopteryx''. ''Archaeopteryx'' 6:1-30.</ref> − − Since the 1990s, a number of additional [[feathered dinosaurs]] have been found, providing even stronger evidence of the close relationship between dinosaurs and modern birds. Most of these specimens were unearthed in the [[Liaoning]] province in northeastern [[China]], which was part of an island continent during the Cretaceous period. Though feathers have been found only in the [[Lagerstätten|lagerstätte]] of the [[Yixian Formation]] and a few other places, it is possible that non-avian dinosaurs elsewhere in the world were also feathered. The lack of widespread fossil evidence for feathered non-avian dinosaurs may be due to the fact that delicate features like skin and feathers are not often preserved by [[fossil]]ization and thus are absent from the fossil record. − − The feathered dinosaurs discovered so far include ''[[Beipiaosaurus]]'', ''[[Caudipteryx]]'', ''[[Dilong paradoxus|Dilong]]'', ''[[Microraptor]]'', ''[[Protarchaeopteryx]]'', ''[[Shuvuuia]]'', ''[[Sinornithosaurus]]'', ''[[Sinosauropteryx]]'', and ''[[Jinfengopteryx]]''. Dinosaur-like birds like ''[[Confuciusornis]]'', which are anatomically closer to modern avians, have also been discovered. All of these specimens come from the same formation in northern China. The [[dromaeosauridae]] family in particular seems to have been heavily feathered, and at least one dromaeosaurid, ''[[Cryptovolans]]'', may have been capable of flight. − − '''Skeleton''' − − Because feathers are often associated with birds, feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the [[missing link]] between birds and dinosaurs. However, the multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups represent the more important link for [[paleontologist]]s. Furthermore, it is increasingly clear that the relationship between birds and dinosaurs, and the evolution of flight, are more complex topics than previously realized. For example, while it was once believed that birds evolved from dinosaurs in one linear progression, some scientists, most notably [[Gregory S. Paul]], conclude that dinosaurs such as the [[dromaeosaur]]s may have evolved from birds, losing the power of flight while keeping their feathers in a manner similar to the modern ostrich and other [[ratite]]s. − − [[Image:sue in nyc dino trex.jpg|thumb|210px|left|[[Theropod]]s, a diverse group of carnivorous dinosaurs that included ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', are generally accepted to have been birds' closest relatives.]] − Comparison of bird and dinosaur skeletons, as well as [[cladistics|cladistic analysis]], strengthens the case for the link, particularly for a branch of theropods called [[maniraptor]]s. Skeletal similarities include the [[neck]], [[pubis]], [[wrist]] (semi-lunate [[carpal]]), [[arm]] and [[pectoral girdle]], [[shoulder blade]], [[furcula|clavicle]] and [[keel (bird)|breast bone]]. − − '''Reproductive biology''' − − A discovery of features in a ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' [[skeleton]] recently provided even more evidence that dinosaurs and birds evolved from a common ancestor and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a dinosaur. When laying eggs, female birds grow a special type of bone in their limbs. This [[medullary bone]], which is rich in calcium, forms a layer inside the hard outer bone that is used to make eggshells. The presence of endosteally-derived bone tissues lining the interior marrow cavities of portions of the ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' specimen's hind limb suggested that ''T. rex'' used similar reproductive strategies, and revealed the specimen to be female. − − A dinosaur embryo was found without teeth, suggesting that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaur. It is also possible that the adult dinosaurs regurgitated into a young dinosaur's mouth to provide sustenance, a behavior that is also characteristic of numerous modern bird species. − − '''Lungs''' − − Large meat-eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to those found in modern birds, according to an investigation which was led by [[Patrick O'Connor (paleontologist)|Patrick O'Connor]] of [[Ohio University]]. The lungs of theropod dinosaurs (carnivores that walked on two legs and had birdlike feet) likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their [[skeleton]]s, as is the case in birds. "What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds", O'Connor said. The study was funded in part by the [[National Science Foundation]].<ref>O'Connor, P.M. and Claessens, L.P.A.M. (2005). Basic avian pulmonary design and flow-through ventilation in non-avian theropod dinosaurs. ''Nature'' 436:253.</ref> − − [[Image:Amnh30.jpg|thumb|right|210px|Model of ''[[Microraptor]]'', a four-winged dinosaur with long [[pennaceous feather]]s.]] − '''Heart and sleeping posture''' − − Modern [[computerized tomography]] (CT) scans of a dinosaur chest cavity (conducted in 2000) found the apparent remnants of complex four-chambered hearts, much like those found in today's mammals and birds.<ref>Fisher, P. E., Russell, D. A., Stoskopf, M. K., Barrick, R. E., Hammer, M. & Kuzmitz, A. A. (2000). Cardiovascular evidence for an intermediate or higher metabolic rate in an ornithischian dinosaur. Science 288, 503-505.</ref> The idea is controversial within the scientific community, coming under-fire for bad anatomical science<ref>Hillenius, W. J. & Ruben, J. A. (2004). The evolution of endothermy in terrestrial vertebrates: Who? when? why? Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 77, 1019-1042.</ref> or simply wishful thinking.<ref>Dinosaur with a Heart of Stone. T. Rowe, E. F. McBride, P. C. Sereno, D. A. Russell, P. E. Fisher, R. E. Barrick, and M. K. Stoskopf (2001) Science 291, 783 </ref> A recently discovered [[Troodontidae|troodont]] fossil demonstrates that the dinosaurs slept like certain modern birds, with their heads tucked under their arms.<ref>Xu, X. and Norell, M.A. (2004). A new troodontid dinosaur from China with avian-like sleeping posture. ''Nature'' 431:838-841.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/news/story/0,12976,1326559,00.html See commentary on the article].</ref> This behavior, which may have helped to keep the head warm, is also characteristic of modern birds. − − '''Gizzard''' − − Another piece of evidence that birds and dinosaurs are closely related is the use of [[gizzard]] stones. These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibres once they enter the stomach. When found in association with [[fossil]]s, gizzard stones are called [[gastrolith]]s. Because a particular stone could have been swallowed at one location before being carried to another during migration, paleontologists sometimes use the stones found in dinosaur stomachs to establish possible [[migration]] routes. − − ===Evidence for Cenozoic dinosaurs=== − In 2002, paleontologists Zielinski and Budahn reported the discovery of a single [[hadrosauridae|hadrosaur]] leg bone fossil in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico. The formation in which the bone was discovered has been dated to the early [[Paleocene]] epoch approximately 64.5 million years ago. If the bone was not re-deposited into that [[stratum]] by weathering action, it would provide evidence that some dinosaur populations may have survived at least a half million years into the Cenozoic Era.<ref>Fassett, J, R.A. Zielinski, & J.R. Budahn. (2002). Dinosaurs that did not die; evidence for Paleocene dinosaurs in the Ojo Alamo Sandstone, San Juan Basin, New Mexico. In: Catastrophic events and mass extinctions; impacts and beyond. (Eds. Koeberl, C. & K. MacLeod): ''Special Paper - Geological Society of America'' 356: 307-336.</ref> − − ===Bringing dinosaurs back to life=== − − There has been much speculation about the use of technology to bring dinosaurs back to life. In [[Michael Crichton]]'s book ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', which popularized the idea, scientists use blood from fossilized [[mosquito]]s that have been suspended in [[amber|tree sap]] since the [[Mesozoic]] to reconstruct the [[DNA]] of dinosaurs, filling chromosomal gaps with modern [[frog]] genes. It is probably impossible to resurrect dinosaurs in this manner. One problem with the amber extraction method is that exposure to air, water and radiation causes DNA to decay over time, making it unlikely that such an approach would recover sufficient genetic material in an intact state. − − [[Image:Amber_insect_rotated.jpg|thumb|left|90px|Ancient [[insect]] preserved in [[amber]].]] − The successful extraction of ancient DNA from dinosaur fossils has been reported on two separate occasions, but upon further inspection and [[peer review]], neither of these reports could be confirmed.<ref>Wang, H., Yan, Z. and Jin, D. (1997). Reanalysis of published DNA sequence amplified from Cretaceous dinosaur egg fossil. ''Molecular Biology and Evolution''. 14:589-591. [http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/reprint/14/5/589 See commentary on the article].</ref> However, a functional visual [[peptide]] of a (theoretical) dinosaur has been inferred using analytical phylogenetic reconstruction methods on gene sequences of still-living related species (reptiles and birds).<ref>Chang, B.S.W., Jönsson, K., Kazmi, M.A., Donoghue, M.J. and Sakmar, T.P. (2002). Recreating a Functional Ancestral Archosaur Visual Pigment. ''Molecular Biology and Evolution'' 19:1483-1489. [http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/9/1483 See commentary on the article].</ref> − − Even if dinosaur DNA could be reconstructed, it would be exceedingly difficult to "grow" dinosaurs using current technology since no closely related species exist to provide [[zygote]]s or a suitable environment for [[Embryogenesis|embryonic development]]. − − ===Soft tissue in dinosaur fossils=== − One of the best examples of soft tissue impressions in a fossil dinosaur was discovered in [[Petraroia]], [[Italy]]. The discovery was reported in 1998, and described the specimen of a small, very young [[coelurosaur]], ''[[Scipionyx]] samniticus''. The fossil includes portions of the intestines, colon, liver, muscles, and windpipe of this immature dinosaur.<ref name="softtissue" /> − − In the March 2005 issue of ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', Dr. Mary Higby Schweitzer and her team announced the discovery of flexible material resembling actual soft tissue inside a 68-million-year-old ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' leg [[bone]] from the [[Hell Creek Formation]] in [[Montana]]. After recovery, the tissue was rehydrated by the science team. − − When the fossilized bone was treated over several weeks to remove mineral content from the fossilized bone marrow cavity (a process called demineralization), Schweitzer found evidence of intact structures such as [[blood vessel]]s, bone matrix, and connective tissue (bone fibers). Scrutiny under the microscope further revealed that the putative dinosaur soft tissue had retained fine structures (microstructures) even at the cellular level. The exact nature and composition of this material are not yet clear, although many news reports immediately linked it with the movie ''[[Jurassic Park (film)|Jurassic Park]]''. Interpretation of the artifact is ongoing, and the relative importance of Dr. Schweitzer's discovery is not yet clear.<ref>Schweitzer, M.H., Wittmeyer, J.L. and Horner, J.R. (2005). Soft-Tissue Vessels and Cellular Preservation in Tyrannosaurus rex. ''Science'' 307:1952-1955. Also covers the [[Dinosaur#Feathered dinosaurs and the bird connection|Reproduction Biology paragraph in the Feathered dinosaurs and the bird connection section]]. [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;307/5717/1952 See commentary on the article]</ref> − − ==Extinction theories== − {{main|Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event}} − − The sudden [[mass extinction]] of non-avian dinosaurs, an event that occurred approximately 65 million years ago, is one of the most intriguing mysteries in [[paleontology]]. Many other groups of animals also became extinct at this time, including [[ammonite]]s ([[nautilus]]-like [[mollusk]]s), [[mosasaur]]s, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs, herbivorous [[turtle]]s and [[crocodile]]s, most birds, and many groups of mammals.<ref name="changes">(Nov 2000). ''Earthwatch'' :6-13.</ref> The nature of the event that caused this mass extinction has been extensively studied since the 1970s; at present, several related theories are supported by paleontologists. Though the general consensus is that an impact event was the primary cause of dinosaur extinction, some scientists cite other causes, or support the idea that a confluence of several factors was responsible for the sudden disappearance of dinosaurs from the fossil record. − − ===Asteroid collision=== − [[Image:Chicxulub radar topography.jpg|thumb|The [[Chicxulub Crater]] at the tip of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], the impact of which may have caused the dinosaur extinction.]] − The asteroid collision theory, which was first proposed by [[Walter Alvarez]] in the late 1970s, links the [[extinction event]] at the end of the Cretaceous period to a [[bolide]] impact approximately 65.5 million years ago. Alvarez proposed that a sudden increase in [[iridium]] levels, recorded around the world in the period's rock stratum, was direct evidence of the impact. The bulk of the evidence now suggests that a 5-15 km wide [[bolide]] hit in the vicinity of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], creating the 170 km-wide [[Chicxulub Crater]] and triggering the [[mass extinction]]. Scientists are not certain whether dinosaurs were thriving or declining before the impact event. Some scientists propose that the meteorite caused a long and unnatural drop in Earth's atmospheric temperature, while others claim that it would have instead created an unusual heat wave. − − Although the speed of extinction cannot be deduced from the fossil record alone, various models suggest that the extinction was extremely rapid. The consensus among scientists who support this theory is that the impact caused extinctions both directly (by [[heat]] from the meteorite impact) and also indirectly (via a worldwide cooling brought about when matter ejected from the impact crater reflected thermal radiation from the sun). − − ===Multiple collisions—the Oort cloud=== − While similar to Alvarez's impact theory (which involved a single asteroid or comet), this theory proposes that a stream of comets was dislodged from the [[Oort cloud]] due to the gravitational disruption caused by a passing star. One or more of these objects then collided with the Earth at approximately the same time, causing the worldwide extinction. As with the impact of a single asteroid, the end result of this comet bombardment would have been a sudden drop in global temperatures, followed by a protracted cool period.<ref>Koeberl, C. and MacLeod, K.G. (2002). ''Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions''. Geological Society of America. ISBN 0-8137-2356-6.</ref> − − ===Environment changes=== − At the peak of the dinosaur era, there were no [[polar ice cap]]s, and sea levels are estimated to have been from 100 to 250 metres (330 to 820 feet) higher than they are today. The planet's temperature was also much more uniform, with only 25 degrees Celsius separating average polar temperatures from those at the equator. On average, atmospheric temperatures were also much warmer; the poles, for example, were 50 °C warmer than today.<ref>[http://www.dinodata.org/index.php See entry on The Campanian Diversity Explosion at Dinodata (registration required, free)]: The effect climate change may have had on the extinction of the Dinosaurs</ref><ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/11/1129_051129_sea_level.html Dino-Era Earth Had Polar Ice, Low Sea Level, Study Says] Sea levels during the dinosaur era; [[National Geographic]]; November 29, 2005</ref> − − The atmosphere's composition during the dinosaur era was vastly different as well. Carbon dioxide levels were up to 12 times higher than today's levels, and oxygen formed 32 to 35% of the atmosphere, as compared to 21% today. However, by the late [[Cretaceous]], the environment was changing dramatically. Volcanic activity was decreasing, which led to a cooling trend as levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide dropped. Oxygen levels in the atmosphere also started to fluctuate and would ultimately fall considerably. Some scientists hypothesize that climate change, combined with lower oxygen levels, might have led directly to the demise of many species. If the dinosaurs had respiratory systems similar to those commonly found in modern birds, it may have been particularly difficult for them to cope with reduced respiratory efficiency, given the enormous oxygen demands of their very large bodies.<ref name="changes" /> − − ==History of discovery== − Dinosaur fossils have been known for millennia, although their true nature was not recognized. The Chinese, whose own word for dinosaur is ''konglong'' (恐龍, or "terrible dragon"), considered them to be [[Chinese dragon|dragon]] [[bone]]s and documented them as such. For example, ''Hua Yang Guo Zhi'', a book written by Zhang Qu during the [[Western Jin Dynasty]], reported the discovery of dragon bones at Wucheng in [[Sichuan]] Province.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Dong Zhiming]]|year=1992|title=Dinosaurian Faunas of China|publisher=China Ocean Press, Beijing|id=ISBN 3-540-52084-8}}</ref> In Europe, dinosaur fossils were generally believed to be the remains of [[Giant (mythology)|giant]]s and other creatures killed by the [[Deluge (mythology)|Great Flood]]. − − [[Image:Buckland_detail.png|thumb|left|130px|[[William Buckland]].]] − ''[[Megalosaurus]]'' was the first dinosaur to be formally described, in 1677, when part of a bone was recovered from a [[limestone]] [[quarry]] at [[Cornwell]] near [[Oxford]], [[England]]. This bone fragment was identified correctly as the lower extremity of the [[femur]] of an animal larger than anything living in modern times. The second dinosaur species to be identified, ''[[Iguanodon]]'', was discovered in 1822 by the English geologist [[Gideon Mantell]], who recognized similarities between his fossils and the bones of modern [[iguana]]s. Two years later, the Rev [[William Buckland]], a professor of [[geology]] at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]], unearthed more fossilized bones of ''Megalosaurus'' and became the first person to describe dinosaurs in a [[scientific journal]]. − − The study of these "great fossil lizards" soon became of great interest to European and American scientists, and in 1842 the English paleontologist [[Richard Owen]] coined the term "dinosaur". He recognized that the remains that had been found so far, ''Iguanodon'', ''Megalosaurus'' and ''[[Hylaeosaurus]]'', shared a number of distinctive features, and so decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group. With the backing of [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]], the husband of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], Owen established the [[Natural History Museum]] in [[South Kensington]], [[London]], to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits. − − In 1858, the first known American dinosaur was discovered, in [[marl]] pits in the small town of [[Haddonfield, New Jersey]] (although fossils had been found before, their nature had not been correctly discerned). The creature was named ''[[Hadrosaurus]] foulkii'', after the town and the discoverer, [[William Parker Foulke]]. It was an extremely important find; ''Hadrosaurus'' was the first nearly complete dinosaur skeleton found and it was clearly a [[bipedal]] creature. This was a revolutionary discovery as, until that point, most scientists had believed dinosaurs walked on four feet, like other lizards. Foulke's discoveries sparked a wave of dinosaur mania in the [[United States]]. − − [[Image:OthnielCharlesMarsh.jpeg|left|thumb|130px|[[Othniel Charles Marsh]], 19th-century photograph.]] − [[Image:edcope.jpg|130px|right|thumb|[[Edward Drinker Cope]], 19th-century photograph.]] − − Dinosaur mania was exemplified by the fierce rivalry between [[Edward Drinker Cope]] and [[Othniel Charles Marsh]], both of whom raced to be the first to find new dinosaurs in what came to be known as the [[Bone Wars]]. The feud probably originated when Marsh publicly pointed out that Cope's reconstruction of an ''[[Elasmosaurus]]'' skeleton was flawed; Cope had inadvertently placed the [[plesiosaur]]'s head at what should have been the animal's tail end. The fight between the two scientists lasted for over 30 years, ending in 1897 when Cope died after spending his entire fortune on the dinosaur hunt. Marsh 'won' the contest primarily because he was better funded through a relationship with the [[US Geological Survey]]. Unfortunately, many valuable dinosaur specimens were damaged or destroyed due to the pair's rough methods; for example, their diggers often used [[dynamite]] to unearth bones (a method modern paleontologists would find appalling). Despite their unrefined methods, the contributions of Cope and Marsh to paleontology were vast; Marsh unearthed 86 new species of dinosaur and Cope discovered 56, for a total of 142 new species. Cope's collection is now at the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in [[New York]], while Marsh's is on display at the [[Peabody Museum of Natural History]] at [[Yale University]].<ref>Williams, P. (1997). The Battle of the Bones. ''Dinosaur Cards''. Orbis Publishing Ltd. D36040607.</ref> − − Since 1897, the search for dinosaur fossils has extended to every continent, including [[Antarctica]]. The first Antarctic dinosaur to be discovered, the [[ankylosaur]]id ''[[Antarctopelta|Antarctopelta oliveroi]]'', was found on [[Ross Island]] in 1986, although it was 1994 before an Antarctic species, the theropod ''[[Cryolophosaurus ellioti]]'', was formally named and described in a scientific journal. − − Current dinosaur "hot spots" include southern South America (especially [[Argentina]]) and [[China]]. China in particular has produced many exceptional [[feathered dinosaur]] specimens due to the unique geology of its dinosaur beds, as well as an ancient arid climate particularly conducive to [[fossil]]ization. − − ==In popular culture== − [[Image:Pink_dino.jpg|right|thumb|170px|Pink dinosaur model at [[Vernal, Utah]]]] − − {{main|Dinosaurs in popular culture}} − By human standards, dinosaurs were creatures of fantastic appearance and often enormous size. As such, they have captured people's imagination and become an enduring part of human popular culture. Dinosaur exhibitions and displays at parks and museum exhibits around the world both cater to, and reinforce, the public interest. The popular preoccupation with dinosaurs is also reflected in a broad array of [[fiction|fictional]] and [[non-fiction|non-fictional]] works. − − Notable examples of older fictional works featuring dinosaurs include [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s book ''[[The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle)|The Lost World]]''; the 1933 film ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]''; and ''[[Godzilla]]''. − − ==Religious views== − {{main|Religious perspectives on dinosaurs}} − Various religious groups have views about dinosaurs that differ from those held by scientists, usually due to conflicts with creation stories in their scriptures. However, these religiously-inspired interpretations of dinosaurs do not withstand serious [[Scientific method|scientific scrutiny]]. − − ==See also== − * [[Dinosaur classification]] − * [[Fossil]]s − * [[List of dinosaurs]] − * [[List of fossil sites]] ''(with link directory)'' − * [[Living dinosaurs]] − * [[Prehistoric life]] − * [[Prehistoric reptile]]s − * [[Senckenberg Museum]] - The Senckenberg Museum in [[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]] boasts the largest exhibition of large dinosaurs in [[Europe]]. − − ==Notes and references== − <div class="references-small"> − <!-- Dead note "reptilia": From the classical standpoint, reptiles included all the amniotes except birds and mammals. Thus reptiles were defined as the set of animals that includes crocodiles, alligators, tuatara, lizards, snakes, amphisbaenians and turtles, grouped together as the class Reptilia. However, many taxonomists have begun to insist that taxa should be monophyletic, that is, groups should include all descendants of a particular form. The reptiles as defined here would be paraphyletic, since they exclude both birds and mammals, although these also developed from the original reptile. Thus, some cladists redefine Reptilia as a monophyletic group, including both the classic reptiles as well as the birds and perhaps the mammals (depending on ideas about their relationships). Others abandon it as a formal taxon altogether, dividing it into several different classes. --> − <references /> − <!-- Dead note "jpii": [http://atheism.about.com/od/popejohnpaulii/a/evolution.htm Pope John Paul II, Darwin, and Evolution] Catholic Opinions on Evolutionary Origins. --> − − </div> − − ==General references== − <div class="references-small"> − * Kevin Padian, and Philip J. Currie. (1997). ''Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs''. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-226810-5. (Articles are written by experts in the field). − * [[Gregory S. Paul|Paul, Gregory S.]] (2000). ''The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs''. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-26226-4. − *Paul, Gregory S. (2002). ''Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of flight in Dinosaurs and Birds''. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6763-0. − *[[David B. Weishampel|Weishampel, David B.]] (2004). ''The Dinosauria''. University of California Press; 2nd edition. ISBN 0-520-24209-2. − </div> − − ==External links== − <!--Sorted (roughly) from least to most technical--> − {{commons|Dinosauria}} − {{Spoken Wikipedia|Dinosaur.ogg|2005-12-30}} − <!-- link to the recorded version: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dinosaur&oldid=33253062 -- It should be inserted into the template, as an actual link, because it's rather laborious to roll back among thousands of changes and find a specific revision in the history.--> − − ;For children − *[http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/ Zoom Dinosaurs] (''www.enchantedlearning.com'') From Enchanted Learning. Kid's site, info pages, theories, history. − *[http://www.dinosaur.org/ Dinosaur Interplanetary Gazette] (''www.dinosaur.org'') Award-winning online children's science magazine. − − ;Images − *[http://prehistoricsillustrated.com/index.html PREHISTORICS ILLUSTRATED .com] Paleo Artists's wild imaginations are revealing prehistoric life with their pens and brushes. − *[http://www.search4dinosaurs.com/ SEARCH 4 DINOSAURS .com] A site dedicated to solely providing images of dinosaurs and other prehistoric life. − − ;Popular − *[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/dinosaurs-other-extinct-creatures/index.html Dinosaurs & other extinct creatures] From the [[Natural History Museum]]. London popular site, well illustrated dino directory/ − *[http://www.dinosaurnews.org/ Dinosaurnews] (''www.dinosaurnews.org'') The Dino-headlines from around the world. Recent news on dinosaurs, including finds and discoveries, lots of links. − *[http://www.oceansofkansas.com/nz-aus.html The Dinosaur Lady] (''www.oceansofkansas.com'') The Discoveries of Dr. Joan Wiffen, New Zealand's Dinosaur Lady − *[http://www.arches.uga.edu/~rfreeman/GEOL3350_'4HistoryDinoSt.htm History of Dinosaur discovery] Timeline of the discovery of Dinosaurs. − *[http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dinosaurs/ Dinosaurs: Facts and Fiction] From the [[United States Geological Survey]]. Popular overview. − *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dinosaurs/ Dinosaurs] From the [[BBC]]. Popular site, very well illustrated. − *[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/dinosaur.html Dinosauria] From UC Berkeley Museum of Paleontology Detailed information - scroll down for menu. − *[http://www.bowdoin.edu/~dbensen/ OPUS: Dinosaur by Daniel Bensen] A gallery of dino-paintings. − *[http://www.dino-nakasato.org/en/special97/Fight-e.html Fossilized dinosaurs in mid-battle] − *[http://www.livescience.com/dinosaurs/ LIVE SCIENCE .com] All about Dinosaurs with current featured articles. − *[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/dinosaurs-other-extinct-creatures/index.html Natural History Museum] Includes a dinosaur directory − *[http://homepage.mac.com/doubtboy/dinosaurbooks.html Old Dinosaur Books] An interesting list of old scientifically inaccurate dinosaur books from the past. − − ;Technical − *[http://unisci.com/stories/20013/0803013.htm Putting Dinosaurs' Noses Back Where They Really Were] − *[http://www.prehistoricplanet.com/ Prehistoric Planet] From PaleoClones. Current dino news. − *[http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,63613,00.html ''A Fiery Death for Dinosaurs?'' by Amit Asaravala] From ''[[Wired Magazine|Wired]]''. Article on the rapid extinction of dinosaurs. − *[http://www.newscientist.com/hottopics/dinosaurs/ The Rex Files] From the ''[[New Scientist]]''. Articles, latest news but out of date. − *[http://palaeo-electronica.org/ ''Palaeontologia Electronica''] From Coquina Press. Online technical journal. − *[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0002255 TeV scale gravity, mirror universe, and ... dinosaurs] Article from [http://th-www.if.uj.edu.pl/acta/ Acta Physica Polonica B] by Z.K. Silagadze. − − ;Very technical − *[http://dinobase.gly.bris.ac.uk Dinobase] A searchable dinosaur database, from the University of Bristol, with dinosaur lists, classification, pictures, and more. − *[http://www.dinodata.org/index.php DinoData] (''www.dinodata.org'') Technical site, essays, classification, anatomy; requires a free registration to use. − *[http://www.dinosauria.com/dml/dml.htm Dinosauria On-Line] (''www.dinosauria.com'') Technical site, essays, pronunciation, dictionary. − *[http://dino.lm.com/ The Dinosauricon] By T. Michael Keesey. Technical site, cladogram, illustrations and animations. − *[http://www.users.qwest.net/~jstweet1/ Thescelosaurus!] By Justin Tweet. Includes a cladogram and small essays on each relevant genera and species. − *[http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/Unit310/000.html Dinosauromorpha Cladogram] From [http://www.Palaeos.com PALEOS .com]. A detailed and wonderful amateur site about all things paleo. − *[http://planetdinosaur.com/dinosaurs.htm PLANET DINOSAUR .com] A very extensive site regarding dinosaur information. − − ;Bird-dinosaur and dinosaur warm-bloodedness discussion − *[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/avians.html DinoBuzz] Are birds Dinosaurs? − *[http://www.dinosauria.com/ Dinosauria] Site focusing on the dinosaur-bird relationship. − *[http://research.amnh.org/vertpaleo/dinobird.html Feathered dinosaurs] − *[http://www.dinoheart.org Fossilized dinosaur heart] − *[http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/Eggs/Nests Fossilized dinosaur eggs and nests] − *[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7267 Dinosaur eggs inside pregnant dinosaur] − − {{featured article}} − − [[Category:Dinosaurs| ]] − [[Category:Paleontology]] − [[Category:Paleozoology]] − − {{Link FA|sl}} − {{Link FA|th}} − {{Link FA|es}} − {{Link FA|hu}} − − [[ar:ديناصور]] − [[ast:Dinosauriu]] − [[bs:Dinosaurusi]] − [[bg:Динозаври]] − [[ca:Dinosaure]] − [[cs:Dinosauři]] − [[cy:Deinosor]] − [[da:Dinosaurus]] − [[de:Dinosaurier]] − [[el:Δεινόσαυρος]] − [[es:Dinosauria]] − [[eo:Dinosaŭro]] − [[eu:Dinosauro]] − [[fa:دایناسور]] − [[fr:Dinosaure]] − [[gl:Dinosauro]] − [[ko:공룡]] − [[hr:Dinosauri]] − [[id:Dinosaurus]] − [[is:Risaeðla]] − [[it:Dinosauri]] − [[he:דינוזאורים]] − [[jv:Dinosaurus]] − [[sw:Dinosau]] − [[ku:Dînosaur]] − [[lt:Dinozaurai]] − [[li:Dinosaurusse]] − [[hu:Dinoszaurusz]] − [[ms:Dinosaur]] − [[nl:Dinosauriërs]] − [[ja:恐竜]] − [[no:Dinosaurer]] − [[nn:Dinosaurus]] − [[oc:Dinosaures]] − [[ug:دىنوزاۋر]] − [[pl:Dinozaury]] − [[pt:Dinossauro]] − [[ro:Dinozaur]] − [[ru:Динозавры]] − [[scn:Dinusauru]] − [[simple:Dinosaur]] − [[sk:Dinosaury]] − [[sl:Dinozavri]] − [[sr:Диносауруси]] − [[su:Dinosaurus]] − [[fi:Dinosaurukset]] − [[sv:Dinosaurier]] − [[th:ไดโนเสาร์]] − [[vi:Khủng long]] − [[tr:Dinozor]] − [[uk:Динозаври]] − [[ur:حیوان المہیب]] − [[yi:דיינעסאר]] − [[zh:恐龙]]
Reverted edits by Fbombandy (Talk); changed back to last version by AmesG
The word '''dinosaur''' was coined in 1841 by Richard Owen<ref>http://www.trueauthority.com/dinosaurs/about.htm</ref>, from the [[Latin]] for "terrible lizard" (fututor). Dinosaurs were a group of large [[reptiles]] that previously lived in abundance on Earth.
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The overwhelming scientific consensus is that dinosaurs lived from 230 million until 65 million years ago and that they are all currently extinct (however [[birds]] are considered by scientists to be descended from early [[therapod]] dinosaurs). They claim the [[fossil]] evidence supports this theory. Many Creationists dispute this, claiming that the dating methods used to judge the age of the fossils are not always precise and that there are gaps within the fossil record itself. Furthermore, because the Earth was created 6000 years ago (according to the word of the Bible) it would be impossible for the fossils to be that old. Ken Ham states the very reasonable theorey that Dinosairs were killed during the great flood, buried in mud and then fossilized. Ken Ham
==Dinosaurs through Science==
What follow are the perspectives on dinosaurs accepted by the vast majority of the scientific community, through use of the [[scientific method]], and taught at the United States' major research universities. Following any of the references in this section will lead to scientific treatment of the issue discussed.
==What is a dinosaur?==
===Dinosaur Speciation===
===Definition===
Dinosaur species were immensely varied, from herbivores to carnivores. Although many have been found in the fossil record, paleontologists expect that they have barely scratched the surface of the vast genus that the dinosaurs encompassed.<ref>National Geographic, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060905-dinosaurs_2.html</ref>
===Extinction===
'''Distinguishing features of dinosaurs'''
[[Image:800px-KT_boundary_054.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Badlands near [[Drumheller, Alberta]] where erosion has exposed the KT boundary.]]Close to 65 million years ago, at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period, and the beginning of what we call the [[Tertiary]] period, an event occurred which has come to be known as the [[K-T Event]]. This event obliterated most life on Earth, plunging the world into something that would now be likened to global nuclear winter, through which few extant species could survive. Although scientists dispute the nature of the K-T Event (selecting among any number of catastrophes that could have caused the significant global cooling that resulted), most find, based on strong geological evidence, that the K-T Event was caused by the collision of a massive asteroid with the Earth, the dust and debris from which shrouded the sky for thousands of years, cooling Earth considerably.<ref>Kevin O Pope, "Meteorite impact and the mass extinction of species at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, available at http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/19/11028</ref> The dinosaurs did not survive this cataclysm.<ref>National Geographic, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0823_020823_asteroid.html</ref> Evidence of the dust that caused this long winter is still visible, though, as a line of metal of extraterrestrial origin is often visible in sediment worldwide, occurring as a result of the vaporization and then fall of dust from the meteorite's impact, and its compression within the subsequent geological record.<ref>''Ibid.''</ref> The crater is also visible.<ref>National Geographic, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0307_030307_impactcrater.html</ref>
===Cambrian Life Explosion===
The extinction of the dinosaurs removed a major food competitor, and predator, of smaller animals. As a result of a new "vacancy" in the food chain, following the [[K-T Event]], vast speciation occurred, as the evolutionary pressure of a new cold age propelled animal species to adapt or die out. What we now know as [[mammals]] were some of the main beneficiaries of this explosion: their fur allowed them to adapt to the cold, and their small size allowed them to conserve energy relative to the huge dinosaurs of the previous age.<ref>Bennet, Shostak, Jakotsky, "Life in the Universe," viewable at http://www.amazon.com/Life-Universe-Jeffrey-Bennett/dp/0805385770</ref>
===Dinosaurs and Birds===
As a number of feathered dinosaur fossils have been discovered, and the similarity in the bone structure between birds and dinosaurs, scientists contend that modern birds are a descendant of dinosaurs. This is cited as an example of [[macroevolution]].<ref>National Geographic, "New Dinosaur Discovered: T-Rex Cousin Had Feathers," http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1006_041006_feathery_dino.html</ref>
==Dinosaurs and Creation==
What follow are religious perspectives on dinosaurs, offered by organizations such as "Answers in Genesis," or "Creation on the Web." Following any of the links associated with this section will lead to a treatment of the issue in line with Biblical literalism.
===Humans and Dinosaurs Coexisting===
Some claim there are a number of lines of evidence that point to dinosaurs and man coexisting. <ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/faq/dinosaurs.asp</ref> <ref>http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3061/</ref> For example, trained scientists have reported seeing a live dinosaur.<ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v15/i4/dinosaurs.asp</ref> A thousand people reported seeing a dinosaur-like monster in two sightings around Sayram Lake in Xinjiang according to the Chinese publication, China Today. <ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v15/i4/dinosaurs.asp</ref> An expedition which included Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which is claimed to point to dinosaurs and man existing <ref>http://www.creationism.org/swift/DohenyExpedition/Doheny01Main.htm</ref><ref> http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_hava_supai_dinosaur_carving</ref>. The World Book Encyclopedia states that: "The dragons of legend are strangely like actual creatures that have lived in the past. They are much like the great reptiles [dinosaurs] which inhabited the earth long before man is supposed to have appeared on earth. Dragons were generally evil and destructive. Every country had them in its mythology." <ref>http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/FAQ25.html</ref> The Nile Mosaic of Palestrina, a second century piece of art, is said to appear to be a piece of artwork that shows a dinosaur and man coexisting. <ref>http://www.s8int.com/dinolit2.html</ref> This is quite hard evidence.
Since 565 A.D. there are reports about the Loch Ness Monster (Nessie by birth), a large Monster living in Loch Ness, near Inverness, Scotland. People who saw Nessie described the Monster as it would look similar to a dinosaur. In the life story of St. Columba, there is an account of him driving off a monster attacking a Pict. Some have taken this to refer to the Loch Ness Monster.
An alternate theory for the inclusion of dinosaurs within many cultures is the existence of fossils. Ancient people, unaware that the ancient fossils uncovered by erosion were of extinct animals, attributed the bones to living, magical creatures. This would explain the importance of dragons in Chinese culture - there are a large number of dinosaur and dragon fossils to be found in China.
===Dinosaurs and Creationism===
Some [[Christians]] reject the [[Theory of Evolution]] and the current science community consensus of the age of the earth. Of those Christians who reject evolution, the [[Creationism | Young Earth Creationists]] believe, based primarily on Biblical [[sources]], but also drawing on [[archeological]] and fossil evidence, that dinosaurs were created on the 6th day of the [[Creation Week]]<ref>''Genesis'', 1:25</ref> as a final addendum to the wonders God created, approximately 6,000 years ago; that they lived in the [[Garden of Eden]] in harmony with other animals, eating only plants<ref>''Genesis'' 1:29-30</ref>; that pairs of various dinosaurs were taken onto [[Noah's Ark]] during the [[Great Flood]] and were preserved from drowning<ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2001/dinos_on_ark.asp "Were dinosaurs on Noah’s Ark?"], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>; that fossilized dinosaur bones originated during the mass killing of the Flood<ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v21/i1/dinosaurbones.asp "Dinosaur bones—just how old are they really?"], ''Creation'' 21(1):54–55, December 1998</ref>; and that some descendants of those dinosaurs taken aboard the Ark still roam the earth today<ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v15/i4/dinosaurs.asp "Are dinosaurs alive today?"], ''Creation'' 15(4):12–15, September 1993</ref>, even though none of the six billion people currently residing on the planet have seen them. It should be noted that none of these claims have been backed by any serious scientific research, and rely almost wholly either on the infallibility of the Bible, or on human speculations based to a greater or lesser degree upon the Biblical account.
For clarity, this article will use 'dinosaur' as a synonym for 'non-avian dinosaur', and 'bird' as a synonym for 'avian dinosaur' (meaning any animal that evolved from the common ancestor of ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' and modern birds). The term 'non-avian dinosaur' will be used for emphasis as needed.
Because the term only came into use in the 19th century, the [[Bible]] obviously does not use the word "dinosaur." However, they are alleged to be mentioned in numerous places throughout the biblical account. For example, the '''behemoth''' in [[Job]] and the '''leviathan''' in [[Isaiah]] are sometimes said to be references to dinosaurs, although they could have been references to any large animal of the time<ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/tj/v15/i2/behemoth.asp "Could Behemoth have been a dinosaur?"], ''TJ'' 15(2):42–45, August 2001</ref> such as hippopotomi and crocodiles <ref>http://www.answersincreation.org/job4041a.htm</ref>.
===Size===
==References==
<references/>