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World History – WWI, Communism, and the 1920s

World History – WWI, Communism, and the 1920s

<br>Eleventh Lecture

<br>Eleventh Lecture

'''Outline of Lecture: '''

'''Outline of Lecture: '''

<br>I. Introduction

==Introduction==

The “Great War,” which was what we now call World War I, lasted in Europe from 1914 to 1918.  It was the first global war in world history.  It was the first war that used aircraft, including airplanes and blimps.  The “Bloody Red Baron,” made famous later by a humorous song featuring the dog “Snoopy”, was a German ace fighter pilot named Manfred von Richthofen (1892-1918).  Considered the greatest fighter pilot ever, Richthofen shot down 80 enemy aircraft during the war before being killed by anti-aircraft fire from the ground.

The “Great War,” which was what we now call World War I, lasted in Europe from 1914 to 1918.  It was the first global war in world history.  It was the first war that used aircraft, including airplanes and blimps.  The “Bloody Red Baron,” made famous later by a humorous song featuring the dog “Snoopy”, was a German ace fighter pilot named Manfred von Richthofen (1892-1918).  Considered the greatest fighter pilot ever, Richthofen shot down 80 enemy aircraft during the war before being killed by anti-aircraft fire from the ground.

As great as this cost of war was, the irony was that the war settled nothing and simply set the stage for another terrible world war about twenty years later.  The Communist Revolution, which threatened the entire world for most of the 1900s, also occurred during World War I.

As great as this cost of war was, the irony was that the war settled nothing and simply set the stage for another terrible world war about twenty years later.  The Communist Revolution, which threatened the entire world for most of the 1900s, also occurred during World War I.

'''II. World War I'''

==World War I==

On the side of the Central Powers were Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman empire.  On other side were the Allies of Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Japan and, beginning in 1917, the United States.

On the side of the Central Powers were Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman empire.  On other side were the Allies of Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Japan and, beginning in 1917, the United States.

Germany was still a very young country at the time of World War I.  Recall that Germany became a nation under Otto von Bismarck in 1871, so it had only been in existence for a mere 43 years when hostilities broke out in 1914.  But Germany had marvelous technology and a nationalistic spirit that did not expect to lose.  Germany had a population of 68 million people in 1914, and had the best science and technology also.  Germany feared no other nation, and had no reason to.  It had every expectation to be able to defeat any European opponent.

Germany was still a very young country at the time of World War I.  Recall that Germany became a nation under Otto von Bismarck in 1871, so it had only been in existence for a mere 43 years when hostilities broke out in 1914.  But Germany had marvelous technology and a nationalistic spirit that did not expect to lose.  Germany had a population of 68 million people in 1914, and had the best science and technology also.  Germany feared no other nation, and had no reason to.  It had every expectation to be able to defeat any European opponent.

'''A. Great Battles of World War I'''

===Great Battles of World War I===

This is easy, because there were not many great battles of World War I.  It was mostly trench warfare, but highly deadly.  Horrific poisonous gas was even used.

This is easy, because there were not many great battles of World War I.  It was mostly trench warfare, but highly deadly.  Horrific poisonous gas was even used.

There were four great battles before large numbers of American soldiers reached Europe in 1917.

There were four great battles before large numbers of American soldiers reached Europe in 1917.

'''Gallipoli'''

====Gallipoli====

In April 1915, an amphibious Allied force landed on the Turkish peninsula of Gallipoli in a misguided attempt to knock Turkey out of the war.  Though the Allies greatly outnumbered the Turks, Turkish fighters are extremely tenacious and they held their ground.  The Allies did not properly understand the terrain and suffered from inadequate intelligence about the enemy.  Nine months later the Allies had to withdraw, after suffering 46,000 deaths among over 250,000 casualties.

In April 1915, an amphibious Allied force landed on the Turkish peninsula of Gallipoli in a misguided attempt to knock Turkey out of the war.  Though the Allies greatly outnumbered the Turks, Turkish fighters are extremely tenacious and they held their ground.  The Allies did not properly understand the terrain and suffered from inadequate intelligence about the enemy.  Nine months later the Allies had to withdraw, after suffering 46,000 deaths among over 250,000 casualties.

   

   

'''Verdun'''

====Verdun====

In 1916, the Battle of Verdun between the French and Germans was perhaps the most demanding battle in world history.  The struggle started when the Germans attacked Verdun, France, a city surrounded by a ring of underground forts.  At least 220,000 soldiers died, and at least 480,000 were wounded in this 10-month struggle that accomplished nothing.  At the end the front lines were in nearly the same locations as at the beginning.

In 1916, the Battle of Verdun between the French and Germans was perhaps the most demanding battle in world history.  The struggle started when the Germans attacked Verdun, France, a city surrounded by a ring of underground forts.  At least 220,000 soldiers died, and at least 480,000 were wounded in this 10-month struggle that accomplished nothing.  At the end the front lines were in nearly the same locations as at the beginning.

'''Somme'''

====Somme====

Also in 1916, and also in France, the British and French armies met at the Somme River to begin a massive attack on the Germans in order to distract them from Verdun.  This became the Battle of the Somme, and the fighting was even heard across the British channel in England.  First the Allies “shelled” (fired many shots and bombs) at the Germans to weaken them, and then 100,000 British soldiers charged the enemy.  But the shelling did not have its intended effect, as the Germans were dug in too deeply to be affected by it.  On July 1, 1916, the Germans killed 20,000 of the British soldiers and wounded over 40,000, making it the single worst day for the British in their history.  This battle, which did not succeed in moving trench lines, eventually involved over 2 million men along a 30-mile front.  The British and French lost nearly 750,000 men.  

Also in 1916, and also in France, the British and French armies met at the Somme River to begin a massive attack on the Germans in order to distract them from Verdun.  This became the Battle of the Somme, and the fighting was even heard across the British channel in England.  First the Allies “shelled” (fired many shots and bombs) at the Germans to weaken them, and then 100,000 British soldiers charged the enemy.  But the shelling did not have its intended effect, as the Germans were dug in too deeply to be affected by it.  On July 1, 1916, the Germans killed 20,000 of the British soldiers and wounded over 40,000, making it the single worst day for the British in their history.  This battle, which did not succeed in moving trench lines, eventually involved over 2 million men along a 30-mile front.  The British and French lost nearly 750,000 men.  

'''Third Battle of Ypres''' (Also known as the Battle of Passchendaele)

====Third Battle of Ypres====

(Also known as the Battle of Passchendaele)

For 18 months the British hid 19 huge land mines underneath the German lines southeast of Ypres, Belgium, a location that had already seen battles in 1914 and 1915.  The British then detonated those massive mines, and charged the German positions in July 1917.  At first the strategy worked, as the Germans were confused and disorganized.  But the British did not pursue the Germans as quickly as they should have.  Rain began to drench the area in one of the wettest fall seasons there in years.  Soon the British forces were stuck in a mountain of mud, and this Allied plan was yet another failure.  

For 18 months the British hid 19 huge land mines underneath the German lines southeast of Ypres, Belgium, a location that had already seen battles in 1914 and 1915.  The British then detonated those massive mines, and charged the German positions in July 1917.  At first the strategy worked, as the Germans were confused and disorganized.  But the British did not pursue the Germans as quickly as they should have.  Rain began to drench the area in one of the wettest fall seasons there in years.  Soon the British forces were stuck in a mountain of mud, and this Allied plan was yet another failure.  

'''B. The United States'''

===The United States===

For three years (1914-1916) the United States attempted to stay out of the war.  Europe had been having internal fights since the days of the Greek empire, and the United States had friends on both sides of this massive war.  Many Americans were of German descent and sympathetic to the Central Powers, although most Americans were of British descent then (and now).  If the United States were to intervene, then it was clear that it would enter the war on the side of the British.

For three years (1914-1916) the United States attempted to stay out of the war.  Europe had been having internal fights since the days of the Greek empire, and the United States had friends on both sides of this massive war.  Many Americans were of German descent and sympathetic to the Central Powers, although most Americans were of British descent then (and now).  If the United States were to intervene, then it was clear that it would enter the war on the side of the British.

This news, plus the sinking of American ships by German submarines, swung American opinion towards entering the war against the Germans.  Even though President Woodrow Wilson campaigned for office on the promise to keep America out of World War I, he pushed Congress to declare war on Germany on April 2, 1917.  The addition of the United States to the Allies tipped the power in their favor.

This news, plus the sinking of American ships by German submarines, swung American opinion towards entering the war against the Germans.  Even though President Woodrow Wilson campaigned for office on the promise to keep America out of World War I, he pushed Congress to declare war on Germany on April 2, 1917.  The addition of the United States to the Allies tipped the power in their favor.

'''C. Russia'''

===Russia===

As the United States was entering the war on the side of the Allies, changes were occurring in Russia that would later cause it to withdraw from the side of the Allies and leave the war altogether.  In 1917 Russia was having an internal revolution known as the Communist Revolution, which would change the world for the rest of the century.

As the United States was entering the war on the side of the Allies, changes were occurring in Russia that would later cause it to withdraw from the side of the Allies and leave the war altogether.  In 1917 Russia was having an internal revolution known as the Communist Revolution, which would change the world for the rest of the century.

Lenin quickly arranged for peace with Germany to end Russia’s involvement with the Allies in the war.  In March 1918, Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, by which Russia gave to Germany much territory, including what is now Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Ukraine, Estonia and Latvia.  This was a humiliating defeat for Russia, but it was simply too weak to fight the Germans further.

Lenin quickly arranged for peace with Germany to end Russia’s involvement with the Allies in the war.  In March 1918, Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, by which Russia gave to Germany much territory, including what is now Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Ukraine, Estonia and Latvia.  This was a humiliating defeat for Russia, but it was simply too weak to fight the Germans further.

'''D. The Western Front'''

===The Western Front===

The exit of Russia allowed Germany to shift all of its troops to the western front, saving Germany from having to continue a two-front war.  Almost immediately it appeared that Germany would win, as it unleashed all of its power against France in March 1918.

The exit of Russia allowed Germany to shift all of its troops to the western front, saving Germany from having to continue a two-front war.  Almost immediately it appeared that Germany would win, as it unleashed all of its power against France in March 1918.

As the Americans and the Allies advanced toward Germany, the Ottoman Turks and Bulgarians surrendered.  There was a revolution in Austria-Hungary that overthrew its government, and Germany would not recognize that new government.  Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated his throne in Germany on November 1918, and the Germans formed a new republic.  Members of the German republic signed an armistice (agreement to stop fighting) on November 11, 1918.  The Great War was over.

As the Americans and the Allies advanced toward Germany, the Ottoman Turks and Bulgarians surrendered.  There was a revolution in Austria-Hungary that overthrew its government, and Germany would not recognize that new government.  Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated his throne in Germany on November 1918, and the Germans formed a new republic.  Members of the German republic signed an armistice (agreement to stop fighting) on November 11, 1918.  The Great War was over.

'''E. Terms of Peace'''

===Terms of Peace===

The war was over at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918, but the terms of peace remained unresolved.  The Allies convened at the historic Palace of Versailles outside Paris in January 1918 to discuss peace terms.  The representatives at the Paris Peace Conference included Woodrow Wilson from the United States, David Lloyd George from Great Britain, Vittorio Orlando from Italy, and Georges Clemenceau from France.

The war was over at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918, but the terms of peace remained unresolved.  The Allies convened at the historic Palace of Versailles outside Paris in January 1918 to discuss peace terms.  The representatives at the Paris Peace Conference included Woodrow Wilson from the United States, David Lloyd George from Great Britain, Vittorio Orlando from Italy, and Georges Clemenceau from France.

The United States and Japan emerged the strongest economically after the war, as their involvement was much less than for the other combatants, and the war was not fought on their soil.  Business opportunities for these two nations were enormous after the war.

The United States and Japan emerged the strongest economically after the war, as their involvement was much less than for the other combatants, and the war was not fought on their soil.  Business opportunities for these two nations were enormous after the war.

'''III. Communism'''

==Communism==

The taking root of communism in Russia during World War I was perhaps the single most important political event of the 1900s (the 20th century).  It deserves greater study.

The taking root of communism in Russia during World War I was perhaps the single most important political event of the 1900s (the 20th century).  It deserves greater study.

Why and how did communism begin in Russia in 1917?  We learn that next.

Why and how did communism begin in Russia in 1917?  We learn that next.

'''A. Pre-Revolution Russian Policies'''

===Pre-Revolution Russian Policies===

Russian czars were harsh on the peasants for decades before 1917.  The Romanov czars who ruled Russian in the 1800s allowed severe shortages in fuel and bread for the peasants, and highly unequal land distribution.  Russia did not convert quickly from a farming (agrarian) economy to an industrial one, and feudalism bound serfs to nobles far longer than in the West.  Russian defeats in wars, such as the Crimean War, were hurtful.  One of the reasons Russia kept losing wars was its inadequate industrialization and transportation for soldiers and supplies.

Russian czars were harsh on the peasants for decades before 1917.  The Romanov czars who ruled Russian in the 1800s allowed severe shortages in fuel and bread for the peasants, and highly unequal land distribution.  Russia did not convert quickly from a farming (agrarian) economy to an industrial one, and feudalism bound serfs to nobles far longer than in the West.  Russian defeats in wars, such as the Crimean War, were hurtful.  One of the reasons Russia kept losing wars was its inadequate industrialization and transportation for soldiers and supplies.

Czar Alexander III’s son was Nicholas II, who became czar in 1894 and is now recognized as a saint by the Russian Orthodox Church.  As autocratic as his father, Nicholas II continued the attempt to modernize (industrialize) Russia.  He used government to create railroads and factories.  His regime built the Trans-Siberian Railway.  But all this industrialization brought some problems, such as low wages and harsh working conditions.

Czar Alexander III’s son was Nicholas II, who became czar in 1894 and is now recognized as a saint by the Russian Orthodox Church.  As autocratic as his father, Nicholas II continued the attempt to modernize (industrialize) Russia.  He used government to create railroads and factories.  His regime built the Trans-Siberian Railway.  But all this industrialization brought some problems, such as low wages and harsh working conditions.

'''B. Early Signs of Revolution'''

===Early Signs of Revolution===

By the late 1800s the views of Karl Marx had reached Russia, and by 1903 there were two Marxist groups:  the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks.  The Mensheviks sought more industrialization before seeking support from the proletariat (working class) for a revolution.  The Bolsheviks were more extreme, wanting a violent revolution by a small group of people as soon as possible.  Their leader was Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, who was exiled in Europe but still in charge of his followers in Russia.

By the late 1800s the views of Karl Marx had reached Russia, and by 1903 there were two Marxist groups:  the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks.  The Mensheviks sought more industrialization before seeking support from the proletariat (working class) for a revolution.  The Bolsheviks were more extreme, wanting a violent revolution by a small group of people as soon as possible.  Their leader was Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, who was exiled in Europe but still in charge of his followers in Russia.

But Kerensky continued the war, despite the protests against poor conditions.  Revolutionaries formed “soviets”, which were local groups of peasants or laborers, and which sometimes included soldiers.  The Germans sent Lenin back to Russia in the hope of dividing Russia further and causing it to withdraw from the war.  The Germans were right, but the world paid a hefty price for that momentous decision.

But Kerensky continued the war, despite the protests against poor conditions.  Revolutionaries formed “soviets”, which were local groups of peasants or laborers, and which sometimes included soldiers.  The Germans sent Lenin back to Russia in the hope of dividing Russia further and causing it to withdraw from the war.  The Germans were right, but the world paid a hefty price for that momentous decision.

'''C. The Communist Revolution'''

===The Communist Revolution===

Lenin arrived in St. Petersburg (Petrograd) in April 1917, and he quickly gained control for the Bolsheviks in the largest Russian cities.  Then, in November 1917, he organized armed factory workers known as the Red Guards to march on the Winter Palace in Petrograd.  There they arrested the leaders of the Russian provisional government.

Lenin arrived in St. Petersburg (Petrograd) in April 1917, and he quickly gained control for the Bolsheviks in the largest Russian cities.  Then, in November 1917, he organized armed factory workers known as the Red Guards to march on the Winter Palace in Petrograd.  There they arrested the leaders of the Russian provisional government.

Politically, Lenin established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922, allowing one central government under Lenin to control many socialized republics.  In 1924, the Bolsheviks began calling themselves “Communists” and established a constitution.  But there was only one political party, and it held all the power.  It was the Communist Party.

Politically, Lenin established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922, allowing one central government under Lenin to control many socialized republics.  In 1924, the Bolsheviks began calling themselves “Communists” and established a constitution.  But there was only one political party, and it held all the power.  It was the Communist Party.

'''D. Joseph Stalin'''

===Joseph Stalin===

As noted above, Joseph Stalin won the power struggle when Lenin died, which was in 1924.  Stalin established a brutal totalitarian state, whereby he dictated all aspects of life and used violence to destroy any opponents.  A secret police aided Stalin in his vicious execution of all opponents.

As noted above, Joseph Stalin won the power struggle when Lenin died, which was in 1924.  Stalin established a brutal totalitarian state, whereby he dictated all aspects of life and used violence to destroy any opponents.  A secret police aided Stalin in his vicious execution of all opponents.

Stalin seized millions of private farms in 1928, and combined them into large, government-owned farms.  This was another disaster.  Stalin particularly punished the Ukrainian kulaks, who were wealthier peasants who had done well (through their own hard work) during Lenin’s NEP.  Stalin’s enforcement of collective farming against the kulaks caused a huge famine in the Ukraine and the death of perhaps 20 million people.  In sum, Stalin was a brutal and not-very-bright dictator.

Stalin seized millions of private farms in 1928, and combined them into large, government-owned farms.  This was another disaster.  Stalin particularly punished the Ukrainian kulaks, who were wealthier peasants who had done well (through their own hard work) during Lenin’s NEP.  Stalin’s enforcement of collective farming against the kulaks caused a huge famine in the Ukraine and the death of perhaps 20 million people.  In sum, Stalin was a brutal and not-very-bright dictator.

'''IV. Nationalism in Eastern, Southern and Southwestern Asia'''

==Nationalism in Eastern, Southern and Southwestern Asia==

'''A. India'''

===India===

The British did not grant India independence immediately after World War I, as many Indians hoped.  Great Britain had no intention of relinquishing this magical subcontinent, and to control rebellions it passed a law in 1919 allowing imprisonment for two years without a jury trial.  Hindus and Muslims alike sought independence instead, and formed a peaceful demonstration at Amritsar, which was the capital of the Punjab area.  But a panicked British commander instructed his troops to fire on the Hindu and Muslim protesters, killing 400 in what is known as the Amritsar Massacre.  Indians nationwide were outraged and demanded independence.

The British did not grant India independence immediately after World War I, as many Indians hoped.  Great Britain had no intention of relinquishing this magical subcontinent, and to control rebellions it passed a law in 1919 allowing imprisonment for two years without a jury trial.  Hindus and Muslims alike sought independence instead, and formed a peaceful demonstration at Amritsar, which was the capital of the Punjab area.  But a panicked British commander instructed his troops to fire on the Hindu and Muslim protesters, killing 400 in what is known as the Amritsar Massacre.  Indians nationwide were outraged and demanded independence.

Eventually Ghandi’s protest efforts paid off, as the British Parliament enacted the Government of India Act in 1935.  This established self-rule at a local level and allowed some democratic elections.  Muslims, however, feared majority Hindu rule and requested a separate state for Muslims.  The Muslim League endorsed the creation of a new country called “Pakistan” for the predominantly Muslim population of that region.  India and Pakistan are fully independent today.

Eventually Ghandi’s protest efforts paid off, as the British Parliament enacted the Government of India Act in 1935.  This established self-rule at a local level and allowed some democratic elections.  Muslims, however, feared majority Hindu rule and requested a separate state for Muslims.  The Muslim League endorsed the creation of a new country called “Pakistan” for the predominantly Muslim population of that region.  India and Pakistan are fully independent today.

'''B. China'''

===China===

China was always independent, but it was not always a unified nation.  The Qing dynasty did rule from 1664 to 1912, but it was overthrown by the Revolutionary Alliance, led by a doctor named Sun Yixian who had been living in the United States.  Perhaps inspired by what he saw in America, Sun led the Nationalist Party ([[Guomindang]]) to become the first leader of the new republic China.  Sun quickly turned over power (after only 6 weeks) to Yuan Shiakai, who then ruled as a military dictator.

China was always independent, but it was not always a unified nation.  The Qing dynasty did rule from 1664 to 1912, but it was overthrown by the Revolutionary Alliance, led by a doctor named Sun Yixian who had been living in the United States.  Perhaps inspired by what he saw in America, Sun led the Nationalist Party ([[Guomindang]]) to become the first leader of the new republic China.  Sun quickly turned over power (after only 6 weeks) to Yuan Shiakai, who then ruled as a military dictator.

Meanwhile an aggressive Japan invaded Manchuria, an area of northeast China rich in iron and coal deposits needed by Japanese industry.  This Manchurian invasion was the beginning of World War II in Asia.  Japan followed this with an invasion of China in 1937 along the Yangtze River.  The Chinese civil war stopped temporarily to defend against the Japanese invasion.

Meanwhile an aggressive Japan invaded Manchuria, an area of northeast China rich in iron and coal deposits needed by Japanese industry.  This Manchurian invasion was the beginning of World War II in Asia.  Japan followed this with an invasion of China in 1937 along the Yangtze River.  The Chinese civil war stopped temporarily to defend against the Japanese invasion.

'''C. Southwest Asia'''

===Southwest Asia===

There were three noteworthy nationalism movements in Southwest Asia in the early 20th century:  Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Persia (now Iran).  All three are Muslim countries.

There were three noteworthy nationalism movements in Southwest Asia in the early 20th century:  Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Persia (now Iran).  All three are Muslim countries.

There was less modernization in Saudi Arabia, which was unified beginning in 1902 under the leadership of Abd al-Aziz Ibn Saud, who named the country “Saudi Arabia” in 1932.  Oil was discovered in Saudi Arabia in the 1920s and 1930s, along with discoveries in Kuwait, Iran and Iraq.  Western countries provided the technology for drilling the oil, but there has been continuing conflict with the Western countries ever since over control and access to that oil.

There was less modernization in Saudi Arabia, which was unified beginning in 1902 under the leadership of Abd al-Aziz Ibn Saud, who named the country “Saudi Arabia” in 1932.  Oil was discovered in Saudi Arabia in the 1920s and 1930s, along with discoveries in Kuwait, Iran and Iraq.  Western countries provided the technology for drilling the oil, but there has been continuing conflict with the Western countries ever since over control and access to that oil.

'''V. Science and Art in the Early 20th Century'''

==Science and Art in the Early 20th Century==

Once World War I ended, there were new achievements in science, technology, literature, music and architecture during the 1920s.   

Once World War I ended, there were new achievements in science, technology, literature, music and architecture during the 1920s.   

'''A. Science'''

===Science===

The most notable accomplishment in science was the discovery of quantum mechanics by European physicists.  This discovery of subatomic behavior ultimately produced about a dozen Nobel Prizes and is the basis for the entire computer industry today.  The leading physicists included Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Max Planck of Germany, Enrico Fermi of Italy, Niels Bohr of Denmark, Erwin Schrödinger of Austria and Paul Dirac of England.  Enrico Fermi, a devout Christian, was extraordinary in both his experimental and theoretical accomplishments.  The insight of quantum mechanics was that subatomic particles act more like waves, and are never in a specific place at a specific time until they are observed.  Quantum mechanics formed the basis later for the discovery of very small transistors, which today form the integrated circuits in every computer and electronic device.

The most notable accomplishment in science was the discovery of quantum mechanics by European physicists.  This discovery of subatomic behavior ultimately produced about a dozen Nobel Prizes and is the basis for the entire computer industry today.  The leading physicists included Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Max Planck of Germany, Enrico Fermi of Italy, Niels Bohr of Denmark, Erwin Schrödinger of Austria and Paul Dirac of England.  Enrico Fermi, a devout Christian, was extraordinary in both his experimental and theoretical accomplishments.  The insight of quantum mechanics was that subatomic particles act more like waves, and are never in a specific place at a specific time until they are observed.  Quantum mechanics formed the basis later for the discovery of very small transistors, which today form the integrated circuits in every computer and electronic device.

Other thinkers in the early 1900s included Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).  He was the atheistic father of psychoanalysis, emphasizing the supposed importance of one’s unconscious mind and symbolic dreams.  He was a professor in Vienna, Austria.  In 1938 he fled the Nazis by traveling to England, where he was welcomed and made popular.  Freud proposed that the human psyche consists of three parts -- ego, super-ego, and id -- and that defense mechanisms are an attempt by the mind to resolve conflicts between the super-ego and the id.  A “Freudian slip” is something mistakenly spoken that supposedly reflects a view of one’s subconscious.  Critics of Freud point out that he fabricated some of his data in order to make some of his claims.  Late in life, Freud asked his doctor to kill him, which his doctor did.

Other thinkers in the early 1900s included Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).  He was the atheistic father of psychoanalysis, emphasizing the supposed importance of one’s unconscious mind and symbolic dreams.  He was a professor in Vienna, Austria.  In 1938 he fled the Nazis by traveling to England, where he was welcomed and made popular.  Freud proposed that the human psyche consists of three parts -- ego, super-ego, and id -- and that defense mechanisms are an attempt by the mind to resolve conflicts between the super-ego and the id.  A “Freudian slip” is something mistakenly spoken that supposedly reflects a view of one’s subconscious.  Critics of Freud point out that he fabricated some of his data in order to make some of his claims.  Late in life, Freud asked his doctor to kill him, which his doctor did.

'''B. Technology'''

===Technology===

The mass production of affordable cars had a tremendous effect on society, influencing everything from teenage life to families moving to the suburbs with the father commuting to work each day.  Arrival of the airplane also had an enormous impact, with Charles Lindbergh flying solo for the first time from New York to Paris in 1927.  Amelia Earhart was the first woman to cross the Atlantic by solo flight, in 1932.

The mass production of affordable cars had a tremendous effect on society, influencing everything from teenage life to families moving to the suburbs with the father commuting to work each day.  Arrival of the airplane also had an enormous impact, with Charles Lindbergh flying solo for the first time from New York to Paris in 1927.  Amelia Earhart was the first woman to cross the Atlantic by solo flight, in 1932.

In 1920, KDKA in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, became the first commercial radio station, and radio quickly developed into the center of entertainment for families.  Use of radio spread most quickly in the United States, where there is freedom of speech, and slowly in other countries where speech is controlled or regulated by the government.  Movies caught on in the 1920s in silent form and then, with sound, in the late 1930s.  The Wizard of Oz in 1939 was the first color movie.

In 1920, KDKA in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, became the first commercial radio station, and radio quickly developed into the center of entertainment for families.  Use of radio spread most quickly in the United States, where there is freedom of speech, and slowly in other countries where speech is controlled or regulated by the government.  Movies caught on in the 1920s in silent form and then, with sound, in the late 1930s.  The Wizard of Oz in 1939 was the first color movie.

'''C. Literature and Philosophy'''

===Literature and Philosophy===

After World War I several novels deplored the apparent meaninglessness of that war, and war in general.  In All Quiet on the Western Front (1929), World War I veteran Erich Maria Remarque describes the war in an unflattering way from the perspective of German soldiers.  American Ernest Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms (1929) was also critical of war.

After World War I several novels deplored the apparent meaninglessness of that war, and war in general.  In All Quiet on the Western Front (1929), World War I veteran Erich Maria Remarque describes the war in an unflattering way from the perspective of German soldiers.  American Ernest Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms (1929) was also critical of war.

Prior work in the 1800s by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was the basis for the existentialism movement in the 1900s.  Nietzsche is famous for his statement that “God is dead.”  Nietzsche criticized Western democracy, preferring instead rule by elitist groups who could become almost superhuman through effort and courage.  Nietzsche himself went insane later in life, but many Germans promoted his ideas after World War I as Germans struggled to find self-esteem.

Prior work in the 1800s by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was the basis for the existentialism movement in the 1900s.  Nietzsche is famous for his statement that “God is dead.”  Nietzsche criticized Western democracy, preferring instead rule by elitist groups who could become almost superhuman through effort and courage.  Nietzsche himself went insane later in life, but many Germans promoted his ideas after World War I as Germans struggled to find self-esteem.

'''D. Music and Art'''

===Music and Art===

Americans made one of its rare artistic contributions to the world in the form of jazz, a new style of music developed in New Orleans in the 1920s.  It used irregular tempo and rhythms and combined African American music with European traditions.  New dance styles also became popular, including the Charleston dance that featured much movement.

Americans made one of its rare artistic contributions to the world in the form of jazz, a new style of music developed in New Orleans in the 1920s.  It used irregular tempo and rhythms and combined African American music with European traditions.  New dance styles also became popular, including the Charleston dance that featured much movement.

In paintings, expressionism emerged based on distorted forms and bold colors.  Pablo Picasso, the most famous artist of the 20th century, had a style that became known as “cubism”, which modified the images of his subjects to fit geometric shapes.  Just as existentialism questioned the meaning of life, an artistic movement called Dadaism (1916-1924) consisted of artwork that emphasized meaningless and arbitrary designs.  Later Surrealism produced art that appeared dreamlike.

In paintings, expressionism emerged based on distorted forms and bold colors.  Pablo Picasso, the most famous artist of the 20th century, had a style that became known as “cubism”, which modified the images of his subjects to fit geometric shapes.  Just as existentialism questioned the meaning of life, an artistic movement called Dadaism (1916-1924) consisted of artwork that emphasized meaningless and arbitrary designs.  Later Surrealism produced art that appeared dreamlike.

'''VI. Postwar Europe'''

==Postwar Europe==

After World War I, there were no major monarchies left in Europe.  Nations turned to democracy, but were not always well-prepared for it.  Numerous political parties formed, and in the parliamentary system of democracy common in Europe, coalitions are required among several political parties to form a majority that could rule.  It took time for people to adjust to this and make the coalitions work.

After World War I, there were no major monarchies left in Europe.  Nations turned to democracy, but were not always well-prepared for it.  Numerous political parties formed, and in the parliamentary system of democracy common in Europe, coalitions are required among several political parties to form a majority that could rule.  It took time for people to adjust to this and make the coalitions work.

In 1928 Briand then signed a similar agreement with Frank Kellogg, the Secretary of State for the United States.  This Kellogg-Briand Pact prohibited war, and was signed by almost every country.  But it was silly because it could not be enforced.  It would take a war to make a country comply with it!

In 1928 Briand then signed a similar agreement with Frank Kellogg, the Secretary of State for the United States.  This Kellogg-Briand Pact prohibited war, and was signed by almost every country.  But it was silly because it could not be enforced.  It would take a war to make a country comply with it!

   

   

'''VII. The Great Depression'''

==The Great Depression==

The complex political alliances that led to World War I were replaced by a complex set of financial relations after World War I.  The Great War was very, very expensive and there were many debts to pay off after the war.  But in order for Britain and France to pay their debts to the United States, Germany had to pay reparations to Britain and France.  In order for Germany to be able to reparations, it had to receive loans from American banks and also benefit from a strong global market.  Meanwhile, colonies were already beginning to struggle due to a decreased demand in raw materials by industrialized nations, which had learned to make more with less.  Any economic downturn in a major country could have set off a financial chain reaction that would be hurtful to all.  In 1928 American lenders did begin pulling money out of Europe to invest in the more successful American stock market, and that was an early warning sign of potential trouble.

The complex political alliances that led to World War I were replaced by a complex set of financial relations after World War I.  The Great War was very, very expensive and there were many debts to pay off after the war.  But in order for Britain and France to pay their debts to the United States, Germany had to pay reparations to Britain and France.  In order for Germany to be able to reparations, it had to receive loans from American banks and also benefit from a strong global market.  Meanwhile, colonies were already beginning to struggle due to a decreased demand in raw materials by industrialized nations, which had learned to make more with less.  Any economic downturn in a major country could have set off a financial chain reaction that would be hurtful to all.  In 1928 American lenders did begin pulling money out of Europe to invest in the more successful American stock market, and that was an early warning sign of potential trouble.