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==The Constitutional Convention==

==The Constitutional Convention==

It was economic and business concerns that sparked the first series call for a national convention to improve the Articles of Confederation.  In September 1786, nine (9) states accepted Virginia's call for a national convention on the issue of interstate commerce, which was trade between the states.  Under the Articles of Confederation, each state could impose taxes ("tariffs") on goods or merchandise shipped to it from another state, and these "tariff wars" disrupted the free market and impeded economic progress.  Only five (5) states attended this "Annapolis Convention," so it was a failure.  But it did something that proved to be historic:  it called for another constitutional convention to be held in Philadelphia.

It was economic and business concerns that sparked the first series call for a national convention to improve the Articles of Confederation.  In September 1786, nine (9) states accepted Virginia's call for a national convention on the issue of interstate commerce, which was trade between the states.  Under the Articles of Confederation, each state could impose taxes ("tariffs") on goods or merchandise shipped to it from another state, and these "tariff wars" disrupted the free market and impeded economic progress.  But only five (5) states attended this "Annapolis Convention," so it was a failure.  But it did something that proved to be historic:  it called for another constitutional convention to be held in Philadelphia.

The Constitutional Convention convened in the summer of 1787 (May through September) in Philadelphia to strengthen the national government by modifying the Articles of Confederation.  Note that its original goal was to fix the Articles of Confederation, not to replace them, but once at the convention the [[Founding Fathers]] decided to replace the Articles altogether.  The Convention became one of the most important events in the entire history of mankind.

The Constitutional Convention convened in the summer of 1787 (May through September) in Philadelphia to strengthen the national government by modifying the Articles of Confederation.  Note that its original goal was to fix the Articles of Confederation, not to replace them, but once at the convention the [[Founding Fathers]] decided to replace the Articles altogether.  The Convention became one of the most important events in the entire history of mankind.

Key participants in the Constitutional Convention were James Madison, George Washington, [[Alexander Hamilton]] and Benjamin Franklin.  [[John Adams]] and [[Thomas Jefferson]] did not attend because they were overseas in diplomatic missions; Adams was in England and Jefferson was in France.  Remember the alliances suggested by their diplomatic efforts:  Adams (and all of New England) was allied with England, while Jefferson (and much of Virginia) was allied with France.

Key participants in the Constitutional Convention were James Madison, George Washington, [[Alexander Hamilton]] and Benjamin Franklin.  [[John Adams]] and [[Thomas Jefferson]] did not attend because they were overseas in diplomatic missions; Adams was in England and Jefferson was in France.  Remember the alliances suggested by their diplomatic efforts:  Adams (and all of New England) was allied with England, while Jefferson (and much of Virginia) was allied with France.

[[George Washington]] reluctantly agreed to attend the convention, and was elected to preside.  In another display of his remarkable self-sacrifice, Washington did not speak on the issues, because he felt this would be unsuitable for the chairman.

[[George Washington]] reluctantly agreed to attend the convention, and was elected to preside.  In another display of his remarkable self-restraint, Washington did not speak on the issues, because he felt this would be unsuitable for the chairman.

[[Benjamin Franklin]] was the oldest attendee, at 82.  He had to be carried to the meetings in a chair and wrote out his remarks so that others could speak for him.  Nevertheless, his influence on the Convention was invaluable.

[[Benjamin Franklin]] was the oldest attendee, at 82.  He had to be carried to the meetings in a chair and wrote out his remarks so that others could speak for him.  Nevertheless, his influence on the Convention was invaluable.

The Constitutional Convention was governed by strict rules.  For example, "Every member rising to speak, shall address the President; and whilst he shall be speaking, none shall pass between them or hold discourse with another, or read a book, pamphlet or paper."  Nothing was to be considered final until the entire Constitution had been written.  Each state received one vote.

The Constitutional Convention was governed by strict rules.  For example, "Every member rising to speak, shall address the President; and whilst he shall be speaking, none shall pass between them or hold discourse with another, or read a book, pamphlet or paper."  Nothing was to be considered final until the entire Constitution had been written.  Each state received one vote.

While most delegates agreed that stronger central government was necessary, they were uncertain how they could accomplish this without too much power.  Their fear of the corruption that power brings reflects the Christian beginnings of our nation.  Christianity teaches that humans are sinful and prone to corruption.  Very few other religions teach that.

While most delegates agreed that stronger central government was necessary, they were uncertain how they could accomplish this without creating too much centralized power.  Their fear of the corruption that power brings reflects the Christian beginnings of our nation.  Christianity teaches that humans are sinful and prone to corruption.  Very few other religions teach that.

As the Constitutional Convention began, the delegates agreed that the Articles of Confederation had not created a functional government.  Congress was in shambles, and attendance in Congress was so sporadic that between October 1785 and April 1786 it had the minimum attendance required to business (a "[[quorum]]") on only three days.  The stated purpose of the Constitutional Convention was to "render the federal constitution adequate to the exigencies of Government and the preservation of the Union."

As the Constitutional Convention began, the delegates agreed that the Articles of Confederation had not created a functional government.  Congress was in shambles, and attendance in Congress was so sporadic that between October 1785 and April 1786 it had the minimum attendance required to business (a "[[quorum]]") on only three days.  The stated purpose of the Constitutional Convention was to "render the federal constitution adequate to the exigencies of Government and the preservation of the Union."

Those words left the Convention somewhat open in terms of its goal.  Delegates had a choice.  First, they could amend the Articles, but this would be very difficult because unanimous approval from the states was required.  Instead, they could draft a new constitution.  Some questioned whether the Convention had authority to do this, but consensus was that a new constitution was the only choice.

Those words left the Convention somewhat open in terms of its goal.  Delegates had a choice.  First, they could amend the Articles, but this would be very difficult because unanimous approval from the states was required.  Instead, they could draft a new constitution.  Some questioned whether the Convention had authority to do this, but consensus was that a new constitution was the only choice.

The attendees thereby did not limit their actions to fixing the Articles of Confederation.  This same debate rages today by calls for a constitutional convention to balance the budget (1980s) or, more recently, to protect traditional marriage.  There is no way to limit what a constitutional convention does.  This debate over whether a constitutional convention can be called for limited issue continues today, with many saying that there is never a way to limit a constitutional convention.  The only real protection for such convention is that its proposal must still be ratified by the states.

The attendees thereby did not limit their actions to fixing the Articles of Confederation.  This same debate rages today by calls for a constitutional convention to balance the budget (1980s) or, more recently, to protect traditional marriage.  There is no way to limit what a constitutional convention does.  This debate over whether a constitutional convention can be limited to a particular issue (e.g., saving traditional marriage) continues today, with many saying that there is never a way to limit a constitutional convention.  The only real protection from a convention exceeding its scope is that its proposal must still be ratified by the states.

'''Debate:  Was it proper for the delegates to go beyond their authority to amend the Articles of Confederation, and instead propose a new constitution?"

'''Debate:  Was it proper for the delegates to go beyond their authority to amend the Articles of Confederation, and instead propose a new constitution?"

: Committee of Style and Arrangement, appointed September 8 in order to revise the style and arrangement of the Constitution, including Alexander Hamilton and James Madison

: Committee of Style and Arrangement, appointed September 8 in order to revise the style and arrangement of the Constitution, including Alexander Hamilton and James Madison

After all the compromises and hard work of the committees, most (but not all) of the delegates at the Convention agreed to the final form of the new Constitution, and signed it.  Next it was sent to the states for ratification, and the publicity and political arguments began.   

After all the compromises and hard work of the committees, most (but not all) of the delegates at the Convention agreed to the final form of the new Constitution, and 39 (out of the original 55) signed it on Sept. 17, 1787, now designated as "Constitution Day." Next it was sent to the states for ratification, and the publicity and political arguments began.   

The new government established by the Constitution is a mixture of other forms of government.  At the time, nearly every country in the world was a monarchy.  The new American government was the first of its kind.   

The new government established by the Constitution is a mixture of other forms of government.  At the time, nearly every country in the world was a monarchy.  The new American government was the first of its kind.