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Jefferson encouraged westward expansion more strongly than any previous president.  To reach this goal, he made purchasing land very easy, and the population west of the Appalachians grew rapidly.  He believed that the Indians should be taught to farm, hoping that they would eventually become citizens of the United States.

Jefferson encouraged westward expansion more strongly than any previous president.  To reach this goal, he made purchasing land very easy, and the population west of the Appalachians grew rapidly.  He believed that the Indians should be taught to farm, hoping that they would eventually become citizens of the United States.

In 1803, Jefferson appointed the former anti-Federalist [[James Monroe]] to negotiate terms for the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida from France, and to offer $2 million for this land but to go as high as $10 million if necessary.  But by this time, [[Napoleon]] had suffered a costly failure in connection with a successful slave revolt in [[Haiti]], and he had decided that France should not try to colonize the New World any further.  So France asked Monroe how much he would pay for all of France's territory, which included the vast tract of land northwest of Louisiana (stretching all the way along the Missouri River, what is now Oregon on the Pacific coast).  Monroe was able to negotiate extremely favorable terms of $11.25 million to France for all of the property (which translates to only a few pennies per acre).  This enormous tract of land was as large as the entire United States at the time.  The overall purchase price was $15 million because Monroe also agreed that the United States would assume nearly $4 million in debts owed by France to American citizens at the time.

In 1803, Jefferson appointed the former anti-Federalist [[James Monroe]] to negotiate terms for the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida from France, and to offer $2 million for this land but to go as high as $10 million if necessary for those two parcels of property.   

 

But by this time [[Napoleon]] had suffered a costly failure in connection with a successful slave revolt in [[Haiti]], and he had decided that France should not try to colonize the New World any further.  So France asked Monroe how much he would pay for ''all of'' France's territory on the North American continent, which included the vast tract of land northwest of Louisiana (stretching all the way along the Missouri River, what is now Oregon on the Pacific coast).  Monroe was able to negotiate extremely favorable terms of $11.25 million to France for ''all of'' the property (which translates to only a few pennies per acre), not merely West Florida and New Orleans.  This enormous tract of land was as large as the entire United States at the time.  The overall purchase price was $15 million because Monroe also agreed that the United States would assume nearly $4 million in debts owed by France to American citizens at the time.

But the Constitution does not give the President the power to buy new territory.  As a strict constructionist, Jefferson needed to violate his own principles about the Constitution in order to accept this unexpected, but extremely attractive, offer.

But the Constitution does not give the President the power to buy new territory.  As a strict constructionist, Jefferson needed to violate his own principles about the Constitution in order to accept this unexpected, but extremely attractive, offer.

The Senate approved this "Louisiana Purchase" by a vote of 24-7, ratifying it by more than the 2/3rds required by the Constitution to approve treaties.  Then, in 1804, Jefferson arranged for Meriwether Lewis, who was his secretary, to explore the territory west of Mississippi acquired in this Louisiana Purchase.  Lewis chose William Clark, a soldier, as his assistant and their joint effort became known as the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806).<ref>Later, in 1809, Lewis was found dead of multiple gunshot wounds and it remains a mystery to this day whether he was murdered; President Clinton refused a request to exhume his body to aid a modern investigation.</ref>  This expedition took about two years to complete, as the explorers traveled all the way to the Pacific Ocean and back.

The Senate approved this "Louisiana Purchase" by a vote of 24-7, ratifying it by more than the 2/3rds required by the Constitution to approve treaties.  Then, in 1804, Jefferson arranged for Meriwether Lewis, who was his secretary, to explore the territory west of Mississippi acquired in this Louisiana Purchase.  Lewis chose William Clark, a soldier, as his assistant and their joint effort became known as the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806).<ref>Later, in 1809, Lewis was found dead of multiple gunshot wounds and it remains a mystery to this day whether he was murdered; President Clinton refused a request to exhume his body to aid a modern investigation.</ref>  This expedition took about two years to complete, as the explorers traveled all the way to the Pacific Ocean and back.

In 1812, Louisiana because the first state admitted to the United States from this new territory.  Much later, in 1828, the Supreme Court held that the power of the federal government to govern new territories implicitly included the power to acquire new territories also.<ref>''American Insurance Co v. Canter'' (1 Peters 511).</ref>

In 1812, Louisiana because the first state admitted to the United States from this new territory.  Much later, in 1828, the Supreme Court held that the power of the federal government to govern new territories implicitly included the initial power to acquire new territories first.<ref>''American Insurance Co v. Canter'' (1 Peters 511).</ref>

Back to 1804, when Burr ran for Governor of New York, which was one of the biggest and most powerful states.  By then, Hamilton published a newspaper in New York named the New York Post, which still exists.  Hamilton ran stories to defeat Burr.  After Burr lost, he challenged Hamilton to a duel.  In those days, one man could challenge anyone to a duel to fight to the death, and the other man had to defend his honor by accepting the challenge and fighting.  Duels were illegal in America, but occurred anyway.  Many of our future Presidents were in duels for this reason, including [[Andrew Jackson]] and [[Abraham Lincoln]].  It was considered dishonorable to decline a challenge to a duel, but 50 years later (perhaps after duels had lost their grip on society) [[Stonewall Jackson]] did refuse to duel a student who had a conflict with him at the [[Virginia Military Institute]].

Let's return to 1804.  Burr was then running for Governor of New York, which was one of the biggest and most powerful states.  By then, Hamilton published a newspaper in New York named the New York Post, which still exists.  Hamilton ran stories to defeat Burr.  After Burr lost, he challenged Hamilton to a duel.  In those days, one man could challenge anyone to a duel to fight to the death, and the other man had to defend his honor by accepting the challenge and fighting.  Duels were illegal in America, but occurred anyway.  Many of our future Presidents were challenged to duels and fought in them, including [[Andrew Jackson]] and [[Abraham Lincoln]].  It was considered dishonorable to decline a challenge to a duel, but 50 years later (perhaps after duels had lost their grip on society) [[Stonewall Jackson]] did refuse to duel a student who had a conflict with him at the [[Virginia Military Institute]].

In 1804, Hamilton had no real choice but to accept Burr's challenge to a duel, and they met at dawn in Weehawkin, New Jersey.  As was customary in duels, they w walked twenty or so paces away from each other and then turned to shoot at each other.  But only one man fired to kill his opponent.  Hamilton purposely did not try to kill Burr, feeling that it would be wrong to do so.  But Burr shot and killed Hamilton.  Burr then fled, having murdered one of the greatest [[Founding Fathers]] of all.

In 1804, Hamilton had no real choice but to accept Burr's challenge to a duel, and they met at dawn in Weehawkin, New Jersey.  As was customary in duels, they walked twenty or so paces away from each other and then turned to shoot at each other.  This time only one of the men fired to kill his opponent.  Hamilton purposely did not try to kill Burr, feeling that it would be wrong to do so.  But Burr shot and killed Hamilton.  Burr then fled, having murdered one of the greatest [[Founding Fathers]] of all.

Later, Burr was indicted for murder, and he moved west to avoid jail.  There, he and a military governor plotted to break Louisiana away from the United States.  The plan failed, but it left behind deep division in the United States.

Later, Burr was indicted for murder, and he moved west to avoid jail.  There, he and a military governor plotted to break Louisiana away from the United States.  The plan failed, but it left behind a deep division in the United States.

Meanwhile, Jefferson had his hands full with foreign conflicts.  Pirates were harassing and looting American shipping off the coasts of the Northern African countries of Morocco, Algiers and Tunis, which had a large port city known as "Tripoli" (it is now the capital city of Libya).  When Tripoli demanded more payoffs to stop the pirating, Congress declared war against it in 1805, known as the First Barbary War or the War with Tripoli.  The war was unsuccessful for the United States, ending with a payment of a huge ransom to free the release of 270 sailors captured by the enemy.  It was not until 1815 that brute force ended the harassment by the pirates of American shipping.<ref>http://www.indepthinfo.com/articles/tripoly-war.shtml</ref>  History books, however, tend to give Jefferson preferential treatment and declare this war to have been a victory.  It did inspire the opening lyric in the Marines' hymn, "From the halls of Montezuma, to the ''shores of Tripoli''."<ref>"Montezuma" is a reference to the Mexican War and the Battle of Chapultepec.</ref>

Meanwhile, Jefferson had his hands full with foreign conflicts.  Pirates were harassing and looting American shipping off the coasts of the Northern African countries of Morocco, Algiers and Tunis, which had a large port city known as "Tripoli" (it is now the capital city of Libya).  When Tripoli demanded more payoffs to stop the pirating, Congress declared war against it in 1805, known as the First Barbary War (or the War with Tripoli).  The war was unsuccessful for the United States, ending with a payment of a huge ransom to free the release of 270 sailors captured by the enemy.  It was not until 1815 that brute force ended the harassment by the pirates of American shipping.<ref>http://www.indepthinfo.com/articles/tripoly-war.shtml</ref>  History books, however, tend to give Jefferson preferential treatment and declare this war to have been a victory.  It did inspire the opening lyric in the Marines' hymn, "From the halls of Montezuma, to the ''shores of Tripoli''."<ref>"Montezuma" is a reference to the Mexican War and the Battle of Chapultepec.</ref>

In 1807, bigger troubled occurred between the United States and England.  The British Orders in Council forbade any trade by the United States with France unless the trade first touched English ports.  This burden on American shipping led five years later to the War of 1812, despite the fact that England eventually rescinded the Orders slightly before Congress actually declared war.  (Keep in mind that communications then was not fast like today.)

In 1807, bigger troubled occurred between the United States and England.  The British Orders in Council forbade any trade by the United States with France unless the trade first touched English ports.  This burden on American shipping led five years later to the War of 1812, despite the fact that England eventually rescinded the Orders slightly before Congress actually declared war.  (Keep in mind that communications then was not fast like today.)

Only one additional state joined the United States during Jefferson's presidency:  Ohio, in 1803.  Jefferson is credited with eliminated unnecessary taxes such as the whiskey tax and decreasing the size of the federal government.

Only one additional state joined the United States during Jefferson's presidency:  Ohio, in 1803.  Jefferson is credited with eliminated unnecessary taxes such as the whiskey tax and decreasing the size of the federal government.

Jefferson himself died on July 4, 1826, a few hours before his political rival John Adams died.  They had become friends years after they fought politically.  Jefferson was deeply in financial ruin when he died, despite having been born to an extremely wealthy family.

Jefferson himself died on July 4, 1826, a few hours before his political rival John Adams died.  They had become friends years late in life.  Jefferson was in financial ruin when he died, despite having been born into an extremely wealthy family.

== The Marshall Court ==

== The Marshall Court ==

Meanwhile, in another branch of government, the Supreme Court was expanding its power under Chief Justice [[John Marshall]].  Marshall was a Federalist appointment by President John Adams, and Marshall served as Chief Justice for an astounding 35 years.  Virtually every important decision rendered by his Court, starting with ''Marbury v. Madison'', expanded federal power.  There was no "check and balance" on Marshall's expansion in judicial power for many decades, until near the end of Marshall's career when President Andrew Jackson stood up to him and ignored Marshall's decision on an Indian issue.   

Meanwhile, in another branch of government, the Supreme Court was expanding its power under Chief Justice [[John Marshall]].  Marshall was a Federalist appointed by President John Adams, and Marshall served as Chief Justice for an astounding 35 years.  Virtually every important decision rendered by his Court, starting with ''Marbury v. Madison'', expanded federal power.  There was no "check and balance" on Marshall's expansion in judicial power for many decades, until near the end of Marshall's career when President Andrew Jackson stood up to him and ignored Marshall's decision on an Indian issue.   

The expansion in ''federal'' power by the "Marshall Court" from 1801 to 1835 included the following decisions (note on nomenclature: a lawsuit brought by John Smith against Tom Jones bears the name "''Smith v. Jones''"):

The expansion in ''federal'' power by the "Marshall Court" from 1801 to 1835 included the following decisions (note on nomenclature: "''Smith v. Jones''" is the terminology used to describe a lawsuit filed, for example, by John Smith against Tom Jones):

*''Marbury v. Madison'' (1803): established the new power of judicial review to declare an Act of Congress unconstitutional.  

*''Marbury v. Madison'' (1803): established the new power of judicial review to declare an Act of Congress unconstitutional.  

*''Dartmouth College v. Woodward'' (1819): established that the Constitution prevents a state from altering the charter of a private corporation (Dartmouth College)

*''Dartmouth College v. Woodward'' (1819): established that the Constitution prevents a state from altering the charter of a private corporation (Dartmouth College)

*''McCullough v. Maryland'' (1819): established that states may not tax a federal bank, and also that a federal bank is authorized by the "necessary and proper" clause in the Constitution

*''McCullough v. Maryland'' (1819): established that states may not tax a federal bank, and also that a federal bank is authorized by the "necessary and proper" clause in the Constitution

*''Cohens v. Virginia'' (1821): established the supremacy of the federal government, by allowing D.C. lottery tickets to be sold in all states except those prohibiting it

*''Cohens v. Virginia'' (1821): established the supremacy of federal law, by allowing D.C. lottery tickets to be sold in all states except those prohibiting it

*''Cherokee Nation v. Georgia'' (1831): upholding a Georgia law to remove the Cherokees, holding that they are not a nation and cannot sue in federal court

*''Cherokee Nation v. Georgia'' (1831): upholding a Georgia law to remove the Cherokees, holding that they are not a nation and cannot sue in federal court