Changes

Let me know which, if any, exam you are considering taking so that I can guide your preparation.

Let me know which, if any, exam you are considering taking so that I can guide your preparation.

The mid-term exam in this course will be entirely multiple-choice, and will cover the beginning through Reconstruction.  The distribution of questions will be similar to the distribution on the SAT II exam, and do not spend too much time on an area that will not have many questions.

The mid-term exam in this course will be entirely multiple-choice, and will cover the beginning through Reconstruction.  The distribution of questions will be similar to the distribution on the SAT II exam, so do not spend too much time on an area that will not have many questions.

== Review ==

== Review ==

One month after his inauguration, in April, Lincoln told South Carolina that he needs to re-supply a federal garrison there called Fort Sumter.  South Carolina did not trust Lincoln and felt this was a trick to fool and possibly attack it.  South Carolina demanded the surrender of federal troops at Fort Sumter.  Shots were fired (it's unknown who fired first), and South Carolina quickly captured Fort Sumter on April 12th.  Lincoln calls for Union (North) troops on April 15th.  Within weeks more states secede, bringing the total to 11 of the states that have seceded:  Arkansas, North Carolina, Virginia and Tennessee.

One month after his inauguration, in April, Lincoln told South Carolina that he needs to re-supply a federal garrison there called Fort Sumter.  South Carolina did not trust Lincoln and felt this was a trick to fool and possibly attack it.  South Carolina demanded the surrender of federal troops at Fort Sumter.  Shots were fired (it's unknown who fired first), and South Carolina quickly captured Fort Sumter on April 12th.  Lincoln calls for Union (North) troops on April 15th.  Within weeks more states secede, bringing the total to 11 of the states that have seceded:  Arkansas, North Carolina, Virginia and Tennessee.

There were compromises between the North and South in 1820, 1850 and 1854).  One last attempt at compromise occurred in 1861, led by Senator John Crittenden of the border state of Kentucky.  Congress passed a constitutional amendment in 1861 to protect slavery in the South, in the hope that would satisfy it.  But this amendment was never ratified by the States because war broke out before the States could even consider it.  It seems unlikely that the northern states would have agreed anyway.

There were compromises between the North and South in 1820, 1850 and 1854.  One last attempt at compromise occurred in 1861, led by Senator John Crittenden of the border state of Kentucky.  Congress passed a constitutional amendment in 1861 to protect slavery in the South, in the hope that would satisfy it.  But this amendment was never ratified by the States because war broke out before the States could even consider it.  It seems unlikely that the northern states would have agreed anyway.

Meanwhile, Congress passed two "Confiscation Acts" attempting to help the President win the war.  The Confiscation Act of 1861 authorized the Union to seize any property, including slaves, which were being used to aid the South in its "insurrection" against the North.<ref>http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=557</ref>  Then the Second Confiscation Act was passed in 1862, it took the additional step of ordering freedom for any slaves belonging to engaged in "treason" against the United States:<ref>addref</ref>

Meanwhile, Congress passed two "Confiscation Acts" attempting to help the President win the war.  The Confiscation Act of 1861 authorized the Union to seize any property, including slaves, which were being used to aid the South in its "insurrection" against the North.<ref>http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=557</ref>  Then the Second Confiscation Act was passed in 1862, it took the additional step of ordering freedom for any slaves belonging to engaged in "treason" against the United States:<ref>addref</ref>

A fascinating international incident occurred on the Atlantic Ocean that forced Great Britain to address the Civil War.  On November 8, 1861, Charles Wilkes, a U.S. Navy Officer (on the side of the North), captured two Confederate envoys aboard the "Trent", which was a British mail ship.  Great Britain was angry at the North for violating British neutrality, and an international crisis resulted.  The envoys were sent by Confederate President Jefferson Davis to obtain recognition by Britain and France of the independent sovereignty of the Confederacy.  Up until this point Great Britain and France had maintained their diplomatic relations with the North (the United States) and viewed the Confederacy as in rebellion, not an independent nation. Davis hoped that early victories by the South against the North (the Union) would cause Britain and France to receive the envoys, and recognize the Confederacy.

A fascinating international incident occurred on the Atlantic Ocean that forced Great Britain to address the Civil War.  On November 8, 1861, Charles Wilkes, a U.S. Navy Officer (on the side of the North), captured two Confederate envoys aboard the "Trent", which was a British mail ship.  Great Britain was angry at the North for violating British neutrality, and an international crisis resulted.  The envoys were sent by Confederate President Jefferson Davis to obtain recognition by Britain and France of the independent sovereignty of the Confederacy.  Up until this point Great Britain and France had maintained their diplomatic relations with the North (the United States) and viewed the Confederacy as in rebellion, not an independent nation. Davis hoped that early victories by the South against the North (the Union) would cause Britain and France to receive the envoys, and recognize the Confederacy.

But there was a U.S. naval blockade preventing such efforts.  The Confederate envoys went from Charleston, South Carolina to Cuba, and then to England on the Trent, in order to sneak through the blockage.  But the U.S. Navy intercepted the Trent on Nov. 8, 1861 and the Captain ordered a search of the British ship, despite lacking permission from Washington for such a bold move.  The search found the Confederate envoys, and took them prisoner along with their aides, and then released ship so it could continue on to England.

But there was a U.S. naval blockade preventing such efforts.  The Confederate envoys went from Charleston, South Carolina to Cuba, and then to England on the Trent, in order to sneak through the blockage.  But the U.S. Navy intercepted the Trent on Nov. 8, 1861 and the Captain ordered a search of the British ship, despite lacking permission from Washington for such a bold move.  The search found the Confederate envoys, and took them prisoner along with their aides, and then released the ship so it could continue on to England.

The British were angry at this invasion of their own sovereignty, and demanded both an apology and a release of the envoys.  Britain even ordered troops to Canada (which was still a colony of Britain) and sent additional ships to the Western Atlantic.  Britain at this time was still far more powerful than the United States.

The British were angry at this invasion of their own sovereignty, and demanded both an apology and a release of the envoys.  Britain even ordered troops to Canada (which was still a colony of Britain) and sent additional ships to the Western Atlantic.  Britain at this time was still far more powerful than the United States.

Lincoln showed his "moderate" political views by vetoing the Wade-Davis Bill in 1864, which would have imposed a very harsh reconstruction plan on the South demanded by Radical Republicans in the North.  That Bill, which never became law, would have established virtually impossible conditions for Confederate states to rejoin the union by requiring a majority in each state to take an oath of loyalty to the United States before it could be admitted.  Lincoln, fearful of a backlash by Radical Republicans, used a "pocket veto" to prevent this from becoming law.  A "pocket veto" is an unusual procedure allowed under the Constitution whereby legislation is considered vetoed if the President does nothing within ten days and Congress has adjourned; doing nothing is a less controversial way of dealing with a crisis than doing something people do not like.

Lincoln showed his "moderate" political views by vetoing the Wade-Davis Bill in 1864, which would have imposed a very harsh reconstruction plan on the South demanded by Radical Republicans in the North.  That Bill, which never became law, would have established virtually impossible conditions for Confederate states to rejoin the union by requiring a majority in each state to take an oath of loyalty to the United States before it could be admitted.  Lincoln, fearful of a backlash by Radical Republicans, used a "pocket veto" to prevent this from becoming law.  A "pocket veto" is an unusual procedure allowed under the Constitution whereby legislation is considered vetoed if the President does nothing within ten days and Congress has adjourned; doing nothing is a less controversial way of dealing with a crisis than doing something people do not like.

Lincoln then defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, aided by the exclusion of southern voters from the election (who would have voted against Lincoln).  McClellan dropped out of national politics after losing this election,, but much later McClellan later became Governor of New Jersey (1878-81).

Lincoln then defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, aided by the exclusion of southern voters from the election (who would have voted against Lincoln).  McClellan dropped out of national politics after losing this election,, but much later McClellan became Governor of New Jersey (1878-81).

In March 1865, Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address is the opposite of his First: now saw the world and the Civil War in moral rather than legal terms.  His Second Inaugural Address is filled with religious spiritual, reflecting that at least Lincoln had personally found his way.  He is one of the few public officials to increase his faith while wielding earthly power.

In March 1865, Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address is the opposite of his First: he now saw the world and the Civil War in moral rather than legal terms.  His Second Inaugural Address is filled with religious spiritual, reflecting that at least Lincoln had personally found his way.  He is one of the few public officials to increase his faith while wielding earthly power.

== Surrender ==

== Surrender ==

Congress was preparing for the Union victory.  It passed the Freedmen's Bureau in March 1865, which established a government agency to help emancipated blacks get food and medical supplies, and to find jobs.<ref>http://www.history.umd.edu/Freedmen/fbact.htm</ref>

Congress was preparing for the Union victory.  It passed the Freedmen's Bureau in March 1865, which established a government agency to help emancipated blacks get food and medical supplies, and to find jobs.<ref>http://www.history.umd.edu/Freedmen/fbact.htm</ref>

Under General Ulysses S. Grant the Union army was racking up big wins against the Confederate army in Virginia in early 1865.  A Union victory was becoming inevitable.  To avoid further loss in life, General Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House in Virginia on April 9th.  The terms of surrender were generous to the South:  southern officers were allowed to keep their arms, and soldiers were allowed to keep their horses.  Some observers complained that it look more like Grant was surrendering to Lee rather than Lee surrendering to Grant.  Truth be told, Grant did have enormous respect for Lee, as most soldiers on both sides did.

Under General Ulysses S. Grant the Union army was racking up big wins against the Confederate army in Virginia in early 1865.  A Union victory was becoming inevitable.  To avoid further loss of life, General Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House in Virginia on April 9th.  The terms of surrender were generous to the South:  southern officers were allowed to keep their arms, and soldiers were allowed to keep their horses.  Some observers complained that it looked more like Grant was surrendering to Lee rather than Lee surrendering to Grant.  Truth be told, Grant did have enormous respect for Lee, as most soldiers on both sides did.

Five days later, on Good Friday, April 14th, Lincoln was attending a theatrical performance (that's an odd way to spend Good Friday, one might observe) and Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, who was himself an actor sympathetic to the South.  Some suggest that Lincoln accepted this ending to his life.  Booth's crime was part of a conspiracy to assassinate the top persons in government, including Vice President Andrew Johnson and Secretary of State William Seward.  General Ulysses S. Grant was to be with Lincoln at the theater but canceled his attendance.  Of all the targets of the conspiracy, only Lincoln died.<ref>http://americanhistory.about.com/od/lincolnsdeath/a/lincolnsdeath.htm</ref>  The conspirators were quickly caught and either killed in the chase (Booth) or tried and hung.  The expression "your name is mud" comes from the conviction and imprisonment of Dr. Samuel Mudd for treating Booth's broken leg after Booth's crime.

Five days later, on Good Friday, April 14th, Lincoln was attending a theatrical performance (that's an odd way to spend Good Friday, one might observe) and Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, who was himself an actor sympathetic to the South.  Some suggest that Lincoln accepted this ending to his life.  Booth's crime was part of a conspiracy to assassinate the top persons in government, including Vice President Andrew Johnson and Secretary of State William Seward.  General Ulysses S. Grant was to be with Lincoln at the theater but canceled his attendance.  Of all the targets of the conspiracy, only Lincoln died.<ref>http://americanhistory.about.com/od/lincolnsdeath/a/lincolnsdeath.htm</ref>  The conspirators were quickly caught and either killed in the chase (Booth) or tried and hung.  The expression "your name is mud" comes from the conviction and imprisonment of Dr. Samuel Mudd for treating Booth's broken leg after Booth's crime.

Vice President Andrew Johnson, who was liked by almost no one, then became President in spring 1865.  When Johnson succeeded Lincoln as president, only the third succession of presidential power in our history (the first was Tyler becoming president after Harrison's death, and the second was Millard Fillmore becoming president after Zachary Taylor's death).   

Vice President Andrew Johnson, who was liked by almost no one, then became President in spring 1865.  When Johnson succeeded Lincoln as president, only the third succession of presidential power in our history (the first was Tyler becoming president after Harrison's death, and the second was Millard Fillmore becoming president after Zachary Taylor's death).   

Johnson was a Democrat from a Tennessee, not a Republican.  In fact,the Radical Republicans in Congress loathed and ridiculed him.  They spread an unjustified rumor that Johnson was drunk during his inauguration.  Johnson was blunt speaking, and that did not help win him any friends either.  He went on a nationwide speaking tour called the "Swing Around the Circle," during which he harshly and unsuccessfully criticized his opponents in Congress.  Meanwhile, the United States was missing all the southern states of the Confederacy: they did not have any seats in Congress.  Simply put, the nation was in disarray.

Johnson was a Democrat from Tennessee, not a Republican.  In fact,the Radical Republicans in Congress loathed and ridiculed him.  They spread an unjustified rumor that Johnson was drunk during his inauguration.  Johnson was blunt speaking, and that did not help win him any friends either.  He went on a nationwide speaking tour called the "Swing Around the Circle," during which he harshly and unsuccessfully criticized his opponents in Congress.  Meanwhile, the United States was missing all the southern states of the Confederacy: they did not have any seats in Congress.  Simply put, the nation was in disarray.

Congress was then controlled by "Radical Republicans" who wanted to impose harsh conditions on the South both to protect African-Americans and to punish  

Congress was then controlled by "Radical Republicans" who wanted to impose harsh conditions on the South both to protect African-Americans and to punish  

the South for the War.  Congress, led by the Radical Republicans, improperly attempted to control Johnson by passing the Tenure of Office Act in 1867.  This required Senate approval for the President to fire his own Cabinet officials, and had the effect of prohibiting Johnson from firing Edward Stanton, the Secretary of War, who was allied with the Radical Republicans in Congress.  In 1868, Congress also passed the Command of the Army Act restricted the President in how he commands the army.

the South for the War.  Congress, led by the Radical Republicans, improperly attempted to control Johnson by passing the Tenure of Office Act in 1867.  This required Senate approval for the President to fire his own Cabinet officials, and had the effect of prohibiting Johnson from firing Edward Stanton, the Secretary of War, who was allied with the Radical Republicans in Congress.  In 1868, Congress also passed the Command of the Army Act which restricted the President in how he commands the army.

Johnson did not back down.  He attempted to fire Stanton, which the Radical Republicans considered to be grounds for impeaching Johnson.  Thaddeus Stevens was a representative from Pennsylvania who would talk about the South as  "conquered territory," and was a typical Radical Republican.  He led the House of Representatives to vote by an astounding margin of 126-47 to impeach Johnson:<ref>http://law.jrank.org/pages/13490/Andrew-Johnson-Trial.html</ref>

Johnson did not back down.  He attempted to fire Stanton, which the Radical Republicans considered to be grounds for impeaching Johnson.  Thaddeus Stevens was a representative from Pennsylvania who would talk about the South as  "conquered territory," and was a typical Radical Republican.  He led the House of Representatives to vote by an astounding margin of 126-47 to impeach Johnson:<ref>http://law.jrank.org/pages/13490/Andrew-Johnson-Trial.html</ref>

== Reconstruction ==

== Reconstruction ==

"Reconstruction" is the 12-year period from the end of the Civil War (1865) to 1877.  The term describes exactly what happened: the South was "reconstructed" from its shambles.  To do this, the North sent troops into the South to control its operations.  Procedures were established for admitted the Confederate states back into the Union (actually, they supposedly were never allowed to leave, but they did need to be readmitted back into Congress).  Obviously much animosity -- and racism -- remained after the end of the actual fighting.  New constitutional amendments were required to make slavery illegal and to protect the rights of African Americans (Amendments 13, 14 and 15).

"Reconstruction" is the 12-year period from the end of the Civil War (1865) to 1877.  The term describes exactly what happened: the South was "reconstructed" from its shambles.  To do this, the North sent troops into the South to control its operations.  Procedures were established for admitting the Confederate states back into the Union (actually, they supposedly were never allowed to leave, but they did need to be readmitted back into Congress).  Obviously much animosity -- and racism -- remained after the end of the actual fighting.  New constitutional amendments were required to make slavery illegal and to protect the rights of African Americans (Amendments 13, 14 and 15).

Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 to declare the rights of blacks to testify in court, make contracts, and hold property.  President Johnson vetoed the bill, but Republicans enjoyed such a large majority in Congress that it then passed over Johnson's veto (with a 2/3rds majority, which is known as "overriding the veto").   

Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 to declare the rights of blacks to testify in court, make contracts, and hold property.  President Johnson vetoed the bill, but Republicans enjoyed such a large majority in Congress that it then passed over Johnson's veto (with a 2/3rds majority, which is known as "overriding the veto").   

Another scandal, the Whiskey Ring, was even worse.  It consisted of many government agents in the Grant Administration in a conspiracy or scheme to steal whiskey taxes for themselves.  To help pay for the Civil War, federal liquor taxes were increased to very high amounts.  But many distillers bribed officials in the Department of the Treasury to reduce the cost of their tax stamps.  An investigation resulted in the conviction of more than 100 officials in the Grant Administration, and even Grant's private secretary, Orville Babcock, was accused (but he was never convicted).<ref>http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h234.html</ref>  As a result of these scandals, there was growing public pressure to end the "spoils system" first established by President Andrew Jackson.

Another scandal, the Whiskey Ring, was even worse.  It consisted of many government agents in the Grant Administration in a conspiracy or scheme to steal whiskey taxes for themselves.  To help pay for the Civil War, federal liquor taxes were increased to very high amounts.  But many distillers bribed officials in the Department of the Treasury to reduce the cost of their tax stamps.  An investigation resulted in the conviction of more than 100 officials in the Grant Administration, and even Grant's private secretary, Orville Babcock, was accused (but he was never convicted).<ref>http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h234.html</ref>  As a result of these scandals, there was growing public pressure to end the "spoils system" first established by President Andrew Jackson.

In 1873, the Republican-controlled Congress doubled the salary of the president to $50,000 a year (a great deal of money in those days), and increased the salary of many other officials in government.  The public was outraged, and their outcry causes a partial repeal.

In 1873, the Republican-controlled Congress doubled the salary of the president to $50,000 a year (a great deal of money in those days), and increased the salary of many other officials in government.  The public was outraged, and their outcry caused a partial repeal.

Grant had to deal with a big problem caused by the Civil War:  inflation.  Wars are expensive.  Remember the French and Indian War and how Britain taxed the colonies afterward?  Somebody has to pay all the bills from a war, the hospitals, the weapons, the food, the transportation, and the meager wages for soldiers.  

Grant had to deal with a big problem caused by the Civil War:  inflation.  Wars are expensive.  Remember the French and Indian War and how Britain taxed the colonies afterward?  Somebody has to pay all the bills from a war, the hospitals, the weapons, the food, the transportation, and the meager wages for soldiers.  

When the government increases the amount of money out there, it causes inflation.  Everyone starts to realize that the money is not worth as much anymore because the government is printing more of it.  So inflation increased during the Civil War.  What cost $100 when the War started in 1861 cost about $170 after it was over.  That’s 70% inflation in just a few years, which is terrible if you have money in the bank.  Your savings are then worth only a little more than half what it was before the war.  Guess how much that $100 cost in 1861 would be today.  (About $2,282!).  You can compare inflation between any two years with this website: http://www.westegg.com/inflation/

When the government increases the amount of money out there, it causes inflation.  Everyone starts to realize that the money is not worth as much anymore because the government is printing more of it.  So inflation increased during the Civil War.  What cost $100 when the War started in 1861 cost about $170 after it was over.  That’s 70% inflation in just a few years, which is terrible if you have money in the bank.  Your savings are then worth only a little more than half what it was before the war.  Guess how much that $100 cost in 1861 would be today.  (About $2,282!).  You can compare inflation between any two years with this website: http://www.westegg.com/inflation/

Now, recall our ongoing struggle between debtors (farmers) and creditors (bankers).  Which side likes inflation?  (The farmers.)  There income increases because eggs, meat, milk, etc., are all increasing in prices.  Meanwhile, the money the farmers own the bank does not increase; it is still the same loan as when they initially borrowed the money from the bank to set up their farm.  So farmers love inflation, and bankers dislike it.

Now, recall our ongoing struggle between debtors (farmers) and creditors (bankers).  Which side likes inflation?  (The farmers.)  Their income increases because eggs, meat, milk, etc., are all increasing in prices.  Meanwhile, the money the farmers owe the bank does not increase; it is still the same loan as when they initially borrowed the money from the bank to set up their farm.  So farmers love inflation, and bankers dislike it.

Whether to have more inflation, or less inflation, became the single biggest issue between the Civil War and 1900.  This conflict manifested itself in many different ways.

Whether to have more inflation, or less inflation, became the single biggest issue between the Civil War and 1900.  This conflict manifested itself in many different ways.

Money then became scarcer, and inflation ended.  Farmers were outraged, calling this the “Crime of 1873”.  What cost $100 in 1872 only cost $77.82 by 1880.  Deflation is devastating to farmers.  Their prices on their goods fall but they still have to pay back their original loan.

Money then became scarcer, and inflation ended.  Farmers were outraged, calling this the “Crime of 1873”.  What cost $100 in 1872 only cost $77.82 by 1880.  Deflation is devastating to farmers.  Their prices on their goods fall but they still have to pay back their original loan.

So the farmers form a new political party in creation to the deflation and “Crime of 1873”:  the Greenback Party.  The so-called “Greenbackers” opposed the gold standard and opposed allowing people to turn in Greenback currency for gold.  They were farmers and debtors who wanted inflation, and silver coins to cause inflation.  In 1878 and 1880 the Greenback Party won two dozen seats in Congress.  But that was not enough, and the government went ahead with redeeming greenbacks in gold.  So debtors and farmers turned to a new solution:  silver.  The Greenback Party peaked in 1878 and disappeared by 1884 as the political issues changed.

So the farmers formed a new political party in creation to the deflation and “Crime of 1873”:  the Greenback Party.  The so-called “Greenbackers” opposed the gold standard and opposed allowing people to turn in Greenback currency for gold.  They were farmers and debtors who wanted inflation, and silver coins to cause inflation.  In 1878 and 1880 the Greenback Party won two dozen seats in Congress.  But that was not enough, and the government went ahead with redeeming greenbacks in gold.  So debtors and farmers turned to a new solution:  silver.  The Greenback Party peaked in 1878 and disappeared by 1884 as the political issues changed.

== References ==

== References ==