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[[image:alexhamilton.jpg{{pp-semi|300pxsmall=yes}}{{Infobox US Cabinet official|thumbname=Alexander Hamilton|image=Alexander Hamilton portrait by John Trumbull 17921806.jpg|order=1st|title=[[United States Secretary of the Treasury]]|term_start=September 11, 1789|term_end=January 31, 1795|president=[[George Washington]]|predecessor=None (New office)|successor=[[Oliver Wolcott, Jr.]]|order2=[[Delegate]] from [[New York]] to the [[Congress of the Confederation]]|term_start2=1788|term_end2=1789|order3=[[Delegate]] from [[New York]] to the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]]|term_start3=1787|term_end3=1787|order4=[[Delegate]] from [[New York County]] to the [[New York State Legislature]]|term_start4=1787|term_end4=1788|order5=[[Delegate]] from [[New York]] to the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]]|term_start5=1786|term_end5=1786|order6=[[Delegate]] from [[New York]] to the [[Congress of the Confederation]]|term_start6=1782|term_end6=1783|birth_date=January 11, 1755 or 1757|birth_place=[[Nevis]], [[Caribbean]] (now [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]])|death_date=July 12, 1804 (aged 49 or 47)|death_place=[[New York City]], [[New York]]|cause_of_death=[[Duel]]|party=[[Federalist Party (United States)|Federalist]]|religion=[[ECUSA|Episcopalian]] at his death|spouse=[[Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton]]|profession=[[military officer]], [[lawyer]], [[financier]], [[political theorist]]|allegiance=[[Province of New York]] (began 1775)<br />[[State of New York]] (began 1776)<br />[[United States of America]] (began 1777)|branch=[[New York Provincial Company of Artillery]]<br />[[Continental Army]]<br />[[United States Army]]|serviceyears=1775–1776 ([[Militia (United States)|Militia]])<br />1776–1781<br />1798–1800|rank=Beginning:<br />[[Image:US-OF1A.svg|05px]] [[Lieutenant]] ([[Artillery]])<br />Highest:<br /> [[Image:US-O8 insignia.svg|20px]] [[Major general (United States)|Major General]] ([[Commanding General of the United States Army|Senior Officer of the United States Army]])|battles='''[[American Revolutionary War]]'''<br />[[Battle of White Plains]]<br />[[Battle of Trenton]]<br />[[Battle of Princeton]]<br />[[Battle of Monmouth]]<br />[[Battle of Yorktown]]<br />'''[[Quasi-War]]'''}}<!--Before editing this lead section, please review WP:MOSBIO and WP:LEAD, and search the talk page for recent discussion. Please do not change birthdate or titles without reviewing the evidence and discussing at talk.-->{{otherpersons|Alexander Hamilton}}'''Alexander Hamilton''' (January 11, 1755 or 1757 - – July 12, 1804) was one of the most important, and most conservative and nationalistic, first [[United States Secretary of the Treasury]], a [[Founding Fathers]] of the [[United States|Founding Father]]. After wartime service as chief of staff to General , [[George Washingtoneconomist]], he became a leading lawyer in New Yorkand [[political philosopher]]. He called led calls for a strong new constitution to replace the weak national government[[Philadelphia Convention]], was one of America's first [[Constitutional law]]yers, and in 1788 he wrote half cowrote the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'', which mobilized supporters of the Constitution and continues to be the single most influential a primary source for [[Constitutional interpretation of what the Constitution means]]. He was a leading intellectual of his time, and the driving force of the Washington Administration that shaped the young nation. Hamilton played a key role in:

* Born on the continued success [[British West Indian]] island of George Washington as his top aide* [[Nevis]], Hamilton was educated in the ratification of [[Thirteen Colonies]]. During the Constitution* [[American Revolutionary War]], he joined the policies that made the United States an economic power* writing New York militia and was chosen artillery captain. Hamilton became senior<ref name="chernow90">Chernow, p. 90.</ref> [[aide-de-camp]] and confidant to General [[George Washington's ]], and led three battalions at the [[Farewell AddressSiege of Yorktown]]. He was elected to the [[Continental Congress]], which remains one of but resigned to practice law and to found the finest statements [[Bank of conservative principles New York]]. He served in political history* the compromise that placed [[New York Legislature]], and was the nationonly New Yorker who signed the Constitution. As Washington's capital at WashingtonTreasury Secretary, Dhe influenced formative government policy widely.C.* the election An admirer of British political systems, Hamilton emphasized strong central government and [[Thomas Jeffersonimplied powers]] as president rather than Aaron Burr* saving , under which the young Union by blocking Aaron Burr from becoming governor new [[U.S. Congress]] funded the [[national debt]], assumed state debts, created a [[First Bank of New Yorkthe United States|national bank]], and established an import [[tariff in American history|tariff]] and [[whiskey tax]].

As By 1792, a Hamilton coalition and a [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]]–[[James Madison|Madison]] coalition had arisen (the nation's first formative [[Federalist Party (United States Secretary )|Federalist]] and [[Democratic-Republican]] Parties), which differed strongly over Hamilton's domestic fiscal goals and his foreign policy of extensive trade and friendly relations with Britain. Exposed in an affair with [[Maria Reynolds]], Hamilton resigned from the Treasury|Secretary in 1795 to return to Constitutional law and advocacy of strong federalism. In 1798, the Treasury[[Quasi-War]]with France led Hamilton to argue for, organize, and become ''de facto'' commander of a national army. Hamilton's far reaching vision put opposition to fellow Federalist [[John Adams]] contributed to the United States on an stable financial basis success of Democratic-Republicans [[Thomas Jefferson]] and promoted [[Aaron Burr]] in the uniquely deadlocked [[election of 1800]]. With his party's defeat, Hamilton's [[nationalist]] and [[industrializing]] ideas lost their former national unityprominence. His Treasury took over state debts In 1801, Hamilton founded the ''[[New York Post]]'' as well as debts owed by the national governmentFederalist [[broadsheet]] ''New-York Evening Post''.<ref>Nevins, Allan, ''The Evening Post: Century of Journalism'', Boni and funded them Liveright, 1922, p. 17.</ref> His intense rivalry with longVice President Burr eventually resulted in a [[Burr-term national debtHamilton duel|duel]], which in turn which Hamilton was paid by a new tariff on imports and a tax on whiskeymortally wounded, dying the following day. He set up  ==Early years==By his own account, Hamilton was born in [[Charlestown, Nevis|Charlestown]], the Bank capital of [[Nevis]] in the United States[[British West Indies]], a central bank out of wedlock to make liquidity Rachel Faucett Lavien, of part French [[Huguenot]] descent, and James A. Hamilton, fourth son of [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[laird]] Alexander Hamilton of Grange, [[Ayrshire]]. He was born on January 11 in financial markets possibleeither 1755 or 1757; most historians now say 1755, although disagreement remains. The nationA young Hamilton claimed 1757 as his birth year when he first arrived in the [[Thirteen Colonies]]; but he is also recorded in probate papers, shortly after his mother's business and financial communities death, as being 13 years old,<ref>From St. Croix records. Ramsing's 1930 Danish publication entered late among Hamilton literature.</ref> indicating 1755. Explanations for this discrepancy include that he may have been trying to appear younger than his college classmates or to avoid standing out as older, that the first time became united probate document may have misreported, or that he may have been passing as 13 to be more employable after his mother's death.<ref>Chernow; Flexner; Mitchell's ''Concise Life''. McDonald, p. 366, n. 8, favors 1757 but acknowledges its minority status, saying the probate clerk's alternate spelling of "Lavien" suggests unreliability.</ref> He was often approximate about his age in later life.  Hamilton's mother had been separated previously from Johann Michael Lavien of [[St. Croix]];<ref>Chernow, p. 10; Hamilton's spelling "Lavien" may be a single economy[[Sephardic]] version of "Levine". The couple may have lived apart from one another under an order of legal separation, with Rachel as the guilty party, meaning remarriage was not permitted on St. Croix.</ref> to escape an unhappy marriage, Rachel left her husband and provided critical support first son for [[St. Kitts]] in 1750, where she met James.<ref>Chernow, p. 12.</ref> They moved together to Rachel's birthplace of Nevis, where she had inherited property from her father.<ref name=c17>Chernow, p. 17.</ref> Their two sons were James, Jr., and Alexander. Because Hamilton's parents were not legally married, the [[Church of England]] denied him membership or education in the church school. To mobilize that grass-roots support Instead, he founded received "individual tutoring"<ref name=c17/> and classes in a private [[Jewish]] school.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishpress.com/content.cfm?contentid=21464|author=Levine, Yitzchok|title=The Jews Of Nevis And Alexander Hamilton|publisher=Jewish Press|date=2007-05-02|accessdate=2008-10-18}}</ref> Hamilton supplemented his education with a family library of thirty-four books,<ref>Chernow, p. 24.</ref> including Greek and Roman classics.[[Image:Young alexander hamilton.jpg|thumb|Hamilton in his youth]]A 1765 business assignment led Hamilton's father to move the family to [[Federalist PartyChristiansted]], St. Croix; he then abandoned Rachel and the two sons. Rachel supported the family by keeping a small store in Christiansted. She contracted a severe fever and died on February 19, 1768, leaving Hamilton effectively orphaned. This may have had severe emotional consequences for him, even by the standards of an eighteenth-century childhood.<ref>E.g., Flexner, ''passim''.</ref> In probate court, Hamilton's half-brother obtained the few valuables Rachel had owned, including some household silver. Many items were auctioned off, but a friend purchased the family books and returned them to the studious young Hamilton.<ref>Chernow, p. 25.</ref> (Years later Hamilton received his half-brother's death notice and a small amount of money.)<ref>Flexner; McDonald.</ref> Hamilton then became a clerk at a local import-export firm, Beekman and Cruger, which operated traded with New England; he was left in every statecharge of the firm for five months in 1771, while the owner was at sea. It He and his older brother James were adopted briefly by a cousin, Peter Lytton, but when Lytton committed suicide, Hamilton was split from his brother.<ref>Chernow, p. 26.</ref> James apprenticed with a local carpenter, while Hamilton was adopted by Nevis merchant Thomas Stevens. Some evidence suggests Stevens may have been Hamilton's biological father: his son, Edward Stevens, became a close friend of Hamilton; the two boys looked much alike, were both fluent in French, and shared similar interests.<ref>Chernow, pp. 27–30.</ref> Hamilton continued clerking, remained an avid reader, developed an interest in writing, and began to long for a life off his small island. A letter of Hamilton's was first popular political party published in the world''Royal Danish-American Gazette'', but soon describing a hurricane that had competition from devastated Christiansted on August 30, 1772. The impressed community began a collection for a subscription fund to educate the young Hamilton on the mainland of North America. ==Education==Hamilton arrived, by way of Boston, at a [[Democraticgrammar school]] in [[Elizabethtown, New Jersey]], in the autumn of 1772. In 1773, he attended a college-Republican Partypreparatory program with Francis Barber at Elizabethtown. There he came under the influence of a leading intellectual and revolutionary, [[William Livingston]] founded .<ref>Adair and Harvey.</ref> Hamilton may have applied to the College of New Jersey (now [[Princeton University]]) but been refused admission;<ref>The earliest source for this anecdote is a posthumous collection of anecdotes about Hamilton by an acquaintance of his great adversary , one Hercules Mulligan, who wrote that [[Thomas JeffersonJohn Witherspoon]]refused Hamilton's demand to advance from class to class at his own speed. In foreign affairs Mulligan's collection has been found unreliable by some biographers, including Mitchell and Flexner. Elkins and McKitrick comment that Witherspoon had just overseen similar programs for [[James Madison]], who collapsed from overwork, and Joseph Ross, who died young.</ref> he was decided to attend King's College in [[New York City]] (now [[Columbia University]]). While studying there, Hamilton and several classmates were members of a strong supporter campus literary group that foreran Columbia's [[Philolexian Society]].<ref>Chernow, p. 53.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/philo/content/about.htm|title=Philolexian History|accessdate=2008-06-30|publisher=[[Philolexian Society]]}}</ref> When Church of BritainEngland clergyman [[Samuel Seabury]] published a series of pamphlets promoting the [[Tory]] cause the following year, Hamilton struck back with his first political writings, ''A Full Vindication of the measures of Congress'' and ''The Farmer Refuted''. He published two additional pieces attacking the [[Quebec Act]]<ref>Morison and Commager, p. 160; Miller, p. 19.</ref> as well-balanced as fourteen anonymous installments of "The Monitor" for Holt's ''New York Journal''. Although Hamilton was a supporter of the Revolutionary cause at this prewar stage, he did not approve of mob reprisals against loyalists. One generally accepted account details how Hamilton saved his college president, Tory sympathizer [[Myles Cooper]], from an [[angry mob]], by speaking to the crowd long enough for Cooper to escape the danger.<ref>McDonald, p. 14; Mitchell, p. I:75; Chernow, p. 63. Flexner, p. 78, noting that Cooper's poem about the incident did not mention Hamilton, suggests that Hamilton was on a side of the building invisible to Cooper.</ref> ==During the Revolutionary War==[[Image:Alexander hamilton 1757 1804 hi.jpg|thumb|upright|''Alexander Hamilton in the Uniform of the New York Artillery'' by Alonzo Chappel (1828–1887)]] ===Early military career===In 1775, after the first engagement of American troops with the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British political system]] in [[Siege of Boston|Boston]], Hamilton joined a New York volunteer [[militia]] company called the [[Hearts of Oak (New York militia)|Hearts of Oak]], which included other King's College students. Working closely He drilled with Washingtonthe [[Company (military unit)|company]] before classes, in the graveyard of nearby [[St. Paul's Chapel]]. Hamilton studied [[military history]] and [[Military tactics|tactics]] on his own, and achieved the rank of [[lieutenant]]. Under fire from the [[HMS Asia (1764)|HMS ''Asia'']], he led a successful [[Raid (military)|raid]] for British cannon in 1795 secured [[Battery Park|the critical Battery]], the capture of which resulted in the Hearts of Oak becoming an [[artillery]] company thereafter. Through his connections with influential [[Province of New York|New York]] patriots like [[Alexander McDougall]] and [[John Jay Treaty]] over , he raised the intense opposition [[New York Provincial Company of Jeffersonians who favored France Artillery]] of sixty men in its war with Britain1776, and was elected [[Captain (United States)|captain]]. Despite an embarrassing sex scandalIt took part in the [[New York Campaign|campaign of 1776]] around New York City, Hamilton tried to keep control particularly at the [[Battle of White Plains]]; at the Federalist Party while [[John AdamsBattle of Trenton]] , it was presidentstationed at the high point of town, the meeting of the present Warren and orchestrated Broad Streets, to keep the creation [[Hessian (soldiers)|Hessians]] pinned in the Trenton Barracks.<ref>Stryker, p. 158.</ref> ===Washington's staff===Hamilton was invited to become an aide to [[Nathaniel Greene]] and other generals; however, he declined these invitations in the hopes of obtaining a powerful national army place on Washington's staff. Hamilton did receive such an invitation, and joined as Washington's aide in 1798late 1776 {{Fact|date=October 2008}} with the rank of [[Lieutenant Colonel]]. Hamilton served for four years, which in effect, as Washington's [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]]; he handled the "letters to Congress, state governors, and the most powerful generals in the Continental Army"; he drafted many of Washington were 's orders and letters at the latter's direction, and was eventually allowed to head"issue orders from Washington over his own signature". Adams' achievement <ref name="chernow90"/> Hamilton was involved in a wide variety of peace high-level duties, including [[military intelligence|intelligence]], [[diplomacy]], and negotiation with France frustrated Hamilton[[general officers]] as Washington's plans[[emissary]].<ref>Lodge, so pp. 1:15–20; Miller, pp. 23–6.</ref> The important duties with which he sabotaged Adamswas entrusted attest to Washington' reelection s deep confidence in 1800his abilities and character, then and afterward. Nevertheless he helped Jefferson become president when it appeared At the points in their relationship where there was little personal attachment, there was still always a reciprocal confidence and respect. During the war Hamilton became close friends with several fellow officers. His letters to the scoundrel [[Aaron BurrMarquis de Lafayette]] might take <ref>Flexner, ''Young Hamilton'', p. 316.</ref> and to [[John Laurens]], employing the office[[sentimental novel|sentimental]] literary conventions of the late eighteenth century and alluding to Greek history and mythology,<ref>Trees, Andrew S. He was killed by Burr , "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton", ''Reviews in American History'' 2005, pp. 33(1):8–14, finding Chernow's inferences to be overreading the contemporary style.</ref> have also been read as revealing a duelhomosocial or perhaps homosexual relationship.<ref>Katz, Jonathan Ned, ''Gay American History: Lesbians and for Gay Men in the U.S.A.'', Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1976, ISBN 978-0690011647, p. 445.</ref> ===Marriage===[[Image:Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, 1781]]In spring 1779, Hamilton asked his friend John Laurens to find him a wife in South Carolina:<ref>Mitchell, p. I:199.</ref> <blockquote>''"She must be young—handsome (I lay most stress upon a good shape) Sensible (a little learning will do) —well bred... chaste and tender (I am an enthusiast in my notions of fidelity and fondness); of some good nature—a great deal of generosity (she must neither love money nor scolding, for I dislike equally a [[Wikt:termagant|termagant]] and an economist)—In politics, I am indifferent what side she may be of—I think I have arguments that will safely convert her to mine—As to religion a moderate stock will satisfy me—She must believe in God and hate a saint. But as to fortune, the 19th century larger stock of that the better."''</blockquote> Hamilton found his own bride on December 14, 1780 when he married [[Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton|Elizabeth Schuyler]], daughter of General [[Philip Schuyler]], and thus joined one of the richest and most political families in the state of New York. The marriage took place at [[Schuyler Mansion]] in [[Albany, New York]]. Hamilton grew extremely close to Eliza's sister, Angelica Church, who was married to John Barker Church, a target [[Member of attacks Parliament]] in Great Britain; some historians argue that the two may have had an affair, although, due to extensive editing of much Hamilton–Church correspondence by Democrats Hamilton's later descendants, it is impossible to know for sure.<ref>Chernow, p. 133–4.</ref> ===Command and the Battle of Yorktown===[[Image:Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.jpg|thumb|''Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown'' by [[John Trumbull]], oil on canvas, 1820]]While on Washington's staff, Hamilton had long been seeking a command position in an active combat situation. As the war drew ever nearer to a close, he knew that opportunities for military glory were slipping away. In February 1781, Hamilton was mildly reprimanded by Washington, and used this as undemocratic an excuse for resigning his staff position. Immediately following his resignation from Washington's staff, Hamilton began to ask Washington and even pro-monarchyothers incessantly for a field command. By This continued until early July of 1781, when Hamilton submitted a letter to Washington with his [[Officer (armed forces)|commission]] enclosed, "thus tacitly threatening to resign if he didn't get his desired command".<ref>Chernow, p. 159.</ref> On July 31, 1781, Washington relented, and Hamilton was given command of a New York [[light infantry]] battalion. In the planning for the assault on [[Progressive EraSiege of Yorktown|Yorktown]] after 1900, howeverHamilton was given command of three [[battalion]]s which were to fight in conjunction with French troops in taking [[Redoubt]]s #9 and #10 of the British fortifications at Yorktown. Hamilton and his battalions fought bravely and took Redoubt #10 with [[bayonets]], as planned. The French also fought bravely, took heavy casualties, and successfully took Redoubt #9. This action forced the British surrender at Yorktown of an entire army, effectively ending the British effort to reclaim the Thirteen Colonies.<ref>Mitchell, pp. I:254–60; Morison and Commager, p. 160.</ref> ==Under the Confederation=====Hamiltonenters Congress===While on Washington's nationalismstaff, Hamilton became frustrated with the decentralized nature of the wartime Continental Congress, particularly its dependence upon the states for financial wizardrysupport: it had no power to collect taxes, or to demand money from the states; this had caused serious problems in Army supplies and promotion pay. Congress had given up printing unsupported paper money back in September 1779; it obtained what money it had from subsidies from the King of business and banking increasingly appealed France, aid requested from the several states (which were often unable or unwilling to conservativescontribute), and loans from Europe against these uncertain revenues.<ref>Kohn; Brant, p. 45; Rakove, p. 324.</ref> After Yorktown, who made Hamilton into a hero resigned his commission. He was elected to the [[Congress of their ownthe Confederation]] as a New York representative beginning in November 1782;<ref>Syrett, p. Hamilton III:117; he was elected in July 1782 for a one -year term beginning the "first Monday in November next", arrived in Philadelphia between the 18th and 25th of November, and resigned July 1783.</ref> he supported such Congressmen as superintendent of finance [[Robert Morris (financier)|Robert Morris]], his assistant [[Gouverneur Morris]] (no relation), [[James Wilson]], and [[James Madison]], who had already been trying to provide the great expositors Congress with an independent source of revenue it lacked under the American political creed [[Articles of Confederation]]. An amendment to the Articles had been proposed by [[RepublicanismThomas Burke]], and set up programs that proved in February 1781, to give Congress the power to collect a strong5% impost or duty on all imports, effective but this required ratification by all states; securing its passage as law proved impossible after it was rejected by Rhode Island in November 1782. Madison joined Hamilton in convincing Congress to send a delegation to persuade Rhode Island to change its mind. Their report recommending the delegation also argued that the federal government needed not just some level of financial autonomy, but also the people could be made operational without an aristocracy or monarchability to make laws that supersede those of the individual states.Hamilton transmitted a letter arguing that Congress already had the power to tax, since it had the power to fix the sums due from the several states; but Virginia's rescission of its own ratification ended Rhode Island negotiations.<ref>Brant, p. 100; Chernow, p. 176.</ref> ==Early life=Congress and the Army===While Hamilton was born out in Congress, discontented soldiers began to be a danger to the young United States. Most of wedlock the army was then posted at [[Newburgh, New York]]. The army was paying for much of their own supplies, and they had not been paid in eight months. Furthermore, the Continental officers had been promised, in May 1778, after [[British West IndiesValley Forge]], a pension of half their pay when they were discharged. A prodigy<ref>Martin and Lender, he pp. 109, 160: at first for seven years, increased to life after Arnold's treason.</ref> It was handling merchant accounts as at this time that a teenagergroup of officers organized under the leadership of General [[Henry Knox]] sent a delegation to lobby Congress, led by Capt. Alexander MacDougall (see [[#Early military career|above]]). The officers had three demands: the Army's pay, their own pensions, and his essay on [[commutation]] of those pensions into a hurricane attracted patrons who paid his way lump-sum payment.  Several Congressmen, including Hamilton and the Morrises, attempted to use this [[Newburgh conspiracy]] as leverage to secure independent support for funding for the American coloniesfederal government in Congress and from the states. Some scholars They encouraged MacDougall to continue his aggressive approach, threatening unknown consequences if their demands were not granted, and defeated proposals which would have argued resolved the crisis without establishing general federal taxation: that Hamilton’s origins can the states assume the debt to the army, or that an impost be reflected in his later lifeestablished dedicated to the sole purpose of paying that debt.<ref name=ellis141>Kohn; Ellis 2004, wherepp. 141–4.</ref> Hamilton suggested using the Army's claims to prevail upon the states for the proposed national funding system.<ref>Kohn, unlike much p. 196; Congressional minutes of January 28, 1783.</ref> The Morrises and Hamilton contacted Knox to suggest he and the Revolutionary generationofficers defy civil authority, his views at least by not disbanding if the army were more nationalisticnot satisfied; Hamilton wrote Washington to suggest that he covertly "take direction" of the officers' efforts to secure redress, rather than tied to secure continental funding but keep the interests army within the limits of a particular region or statemoderation. <ref>Hamilton's letter of February 13, 1783; Syrett, pp. III:253–5. For interpretation, see Chernow, p. 177; cf. Martin and Lender, pp. 189–90.</ref> Washington wrote Hamilton back, declining to introduce the army;<ref>Washington to Hamilton, March 4 and March 12, 1783; Kohn; Martin and Lender, pp. 189–90.</ref> after the crisis was over, he warned of the dangers of using the army as leverage to gain support for the national funding plan.<ref>Chernow, pp. 177–80, citing [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/ot2www-washington?specfile=/texts/english/washington/fitzpatrick/search/gw.o2w&act=Revolutionsurround&offset=32820924&tag=Writings+of+Washington,+Vol.+26:+*To+ALEXANDER+HAMILTON&id=gw260334 Washington to Hamilton], April 4, 1783. Retrieved on May 20, 2008.</ref> On March 15, Washington defused the Newburgh situation by giving a speech to the officers.<ref name=ellis141/> Congress ordered the Army officially disbanded in April 1783. In the same month, Congress passed a new measure for a twenty-five-year impost, which Hamilton voted against,<ref>Rakove, pp. 322, 325.</ref> and which again required the consent of all the states; it also approved a commutation of the officers' pensions to five years of full pay. Rhode Island again opposed these provisions, and Hamilton's robust assertions of national prerogatives in his previous letter offended many.{{Vague|date=September 2008}}<ref>Brant, p. 108.</ref> The Continental Congress was never able to secure full ratification for back pay, pensions, or their own independent sources of funding.As In June 1783, a student at Kingdifferent group of disgruntled soldiers from Lancaster, Pennsylvania sent Congress a petition demanding their back pay. When they began to march toward Philadelphia, Congress charged Hamilton and two others to intercept the mob.<ref>Chernow, p. 180.</ref> Hamilton requested militia from Pennsylvania's College (now Columbia University)Supreme Executive Council, but was turned down. Hamilton took a major role instructed Assistant Secretary of War William Jackson to intercept the men. Jackson was unsuccessful. The mob arrived in Philadelphia, and proceeded to harangue Congress for their pay. The President of Congress, John Dickinson, feared the political debates over independencePennsylvania state militia was unreliable, and refused their help. Hamilton raised argued that Congress ought to adjourn to Princeton, New Jersey. Congress agreed, and relocated there.<ref>Chernow, p. 182.</ref> Frustrated with the weakness of the central government, Hamilton drafted a company call to revise the Articles of artillery Confederation while in Princeton. This resolution contained many features of the future U.S. Constitution, including a strong federal government with the ability to collect taxes and was selected captainraise an army. Fighting It also included the British invasion separation of new powers into the Executive, Legislative and Judicial branches.<ref>Chernow, p. 183.</ref> ===Return to New York===Hamilton resigned from Congress, and in July 1783 was admitted to the New York Bar after several months of self-directed education.<ref>Chernow, p. 160.</ref> He soon began a law practice in New York City . He specialized in late 1776defending Tories and British subjects, as in ''[[Rutgers v. Waddington]]'', in which he came defeated a claim for damages done to a brewery by the Englishmen who held it during the attention military occupation of New York. He pleaded that the Mayor's Court should interpret state law to be consistent with the [[George WashingtonTreaty of Paris (1783)|1783 Treaty of Paris]], commander in chief which had ended the Revolutionary War.<ref>Chernow, pp. 197–9; McDonald, pp. 64–9.</ref> In 1784, he founded the [[Bank of New York]], now the Continental Armyoldest ongoing banking organization in the United States. Washington promoted Hamilton to colonel was one of the men who restored King's College, which had been suspended since the [[Battle of Long Island]] in 1776 and made him severely damaged during the War, as [[Columbia College of Columbia University|Columbia College]]. His public career resumed when he attended the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]] as a delegate in 1786. While there, he drafted its resolution for a Constitutional convention, and in doing so brought his senior aidelongtime desire to have a more powerful, more financially independent federal government one step closer to reality. ==Constitution and Federalist Papers==[[Image:Hamilton-Alexander-LOC.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Hamilton shortly after the American Revolution]] In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from [[New York County]] in effect the chief of staff [[New York State Legislature]] and was the first delegate chosen to the [[Constitutional Convention (although United States)|Constitutional Convention]]. In spite of the fact that title Hamilton had been a leader in calling for a new Constitutional Convention, his direct influence at the Convention itself was not quite limited. Governor [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]]'s faction in usethe New York legislature had chosen New York's other two delegates, [[John Lansing, Jr. |John Lansing]] and [[Robert Yates]], and both of them opposed Hamilton 's goal of a strong national government. Thus, while the other two members of the New York delegation were present, they decided New York's vote; and when they left the convention in protest, Hamilton remained with no vote (two representatives were required for any state to cast a vote). Early in the Convention he made a speech proposing what many considered a very [[monarchical]] government for the United States. Though regarded as one of his most eloquent speeches, it had little effect upon the deliberations of the convention. [[Constitutional Convention %28United States%29#Hamilton.27s Plan|He proposed]] to have an elected President and elected [[Senators]] who would serve for life contingent upon "good behavior", and subject to removal for corruption or abuse; Hamilton's plan attempted to incorporate the "liberties of a combat command at republic" while "guarding against both anarchy and tyranny",<ref>Chernow, p. 232.</ref> yet his plan was probably the battle least trusting in the wisdom of Yorktown the people. The deliberations of the convention were intended to be secret, so as to promote a free and vigorous flow of ideas during the Convention. However, some notes were kept, and due to Hamilton's argument for lifelong terms, and his proposal of measures that ended some contemporaries saw as too similar to previous monarchist forms of government, Hamilton acquired the war reputation in 1781some circles of a monarchist sympathizer.  During the convention, Hamilton may have alerted General Washington constructed a draft for the Constitution on the basis of the convention debates, but he never actually presented it. This draft had most of the features of the actual Constitution, including such details as the [[three-fifths clause]]. In this draft, the Senate was to be elected in proportion to population, being two-fifths the existence size of the Newburgh ConspiracyHouse, and the President and Senators were to be elected through complex multistage elections, in which disgruntled officers might chosen [[elector]]s would elect smaller bodies of electors; they would hold office for life, but were removable for misconduct. The President would have become a threat an absolute [[veto]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] was to civilian have immediate jurisdiction over all [[law suits]] involving the United States, and State governors were to be appointed by the federal government. Washington prevented that<ref>Mitchell, pp. I:397 ff.</ref>==At the end of the Convention, Hamilton was still not content with the final form of the Constitution, but signed off on it anyway as a vast improvement over the Articles of Confederation, and urged his fellow delegates to do so also.<ref>Brant, p. 195.</ref> Since the other two members of the New York==delegation, Lansing and Yates, had already withdrawn, Hamilton became was the only New York signatory to the United States Constitution. He then took a leading lawyer highly active part in the successful campaign for the document's ratification in New York Cityin 1788, which was a crucial step in its national ratification. Hamilton recruited John Jay and married into James Madison to write a defense of the rich and powerful Schulyler family. Along with his close friend proposed Constitution, now known as the ''[[John JayFederalist Papers]]'', he was active and made the largest contribution to that effort, writing 51 of 85 essays published (Madison wrote 29, Jay only five). Hamilton's essays and arguments were influential in antiNew York state, and elsewhere, during the debates over ratification. The ''Federalist Papers'' are more often cited than any other primary source by jurists, lawyers, historians and political scientists as the major contemporary interpretation of the Constitution.<ref>Lupu, Ira C., "The Most-slavery movementsCited Federalist Papers", ''Constitutional Commentary'' 1998, pp. 403 ff.; using Supreme Court citations, the five most cited were [[Federalist No. 42]] (Madison, 33 decisions), [[Federalist No. 78]] (Hamilton was elected , 30 decisions), [[Federalist No. 81]] (Hamilton, 27 decisions), [[Federalist No. 51]] (Madison, 26 decisions), [[Federalist No. 32]] (Hamilton, 25 decisions).</ref> In 1788, Hamilton served yet another term in what proved to be the last time the [[Continental Congress, ]] met under the [[Articles of Confederation]]. He remained involved in the politics of New York: the ratification of the Constitution had been a success for two of the family cliques which constituted New York State politics, against a third, that led by [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] State assembly; the Legislature of 1789 had a majority of those two factions, and was chosen one led by Hamilton's father-in-law, the legislature as other by the Livingston family. They had agreed to each select one of New York's first Senators: [[Phillip Schuyler]] was to be one, and [[James Duane]], whose wife was a delegate Livingston, was to be the other. Hamilton, however, persuaded the Legislature to elect Schuyler and his friend [[PhiladelphiaRufus King]] Constitutional , instead. The Livingstons responded by breaking the alliance and supporting the Clintons instead; this new coalition was to be the basis for the Democratic-Republican Party in 1787/ he played a minor role New York. When Phillip Schuyler's term ended in 1791, they began by electing, in his place, the conventionattorney-general of New York, one [[Aaron Burr]]. Hamilton blamed Burr for this result, and ill characterizations of Burr appear in his correspondence thereafter, although they did work together from time to time on various projects, including Hamilton's army of 1798 and the [[Manhattan Water Company]].<ref>Lomask, pp. 139–40, 216–7, 220.</ref>

Perhaps President George Washington appointed Hamilton's greatest contribution to as the success of the United States occurred during his tenure as Washington’s first [[Secretary of the Treasury from ]] on September 11, 1789 to 1795. Through a system He left office on the last day of tariffs and excise taxes (some January 1795; much of which, as demonstrated by the [[Whiskey Rebellion]], caused a great deal structure of the Government of resentment), Hamilton placed the United States on sound financial footing. While Hamilton disliked taxeswas worked out in those five years, he also realized that they were necessary. Hamilton not only favored close trade ties beginning with the structure and function of the Cabinet itself. [[Great BritainForrest McDonald]], the world’s leading commercial power, but he believed argues that the United States should emulate their economic system. In Hamilton saw his Report on Manufacturesoffice, Hamilton envisioned like the United States as a nation that would rely on manufacturing and commerce in order to become a great power. This (among other things) put him at odds with British [[Thomas JeffersonChancellor of the Exchequer]], who envisioned the United States as an agrarian republic. ==Federalist Party==that of a Prime Minister; Hamilton saw would oversee his colleagues under the need for political newspapers and subsidized numerous editors, most famously [[Noah Webster]]elective reign of George Washington. In 1801, with $10,000 from investors, Washington did request Hamilton started the ''New-York Evening Post''.<ref> It is currently published by Rupert Murdoch under s advice and assistance on matters outside the purview of the name [[New York PostTreasury Department]].</ref>

==Adams and Jefferson administrations====Republicanism==Jefferson repeated attacked Within one year, Hamilton as an enemy of American values--and Jeffersonians have echoed submitted five reports:*[[First Report on the criticism over Public Credit]]: Communicated to the centuries. Jefferson said he was an enemy House of popular governmentRepresentatives, did not believe in republicanismJanuary 14, admired 1790. *[[Operations of the British system too much, and even wanted Act Laying Duties on Imports]]: Communicated to set up a monarchy. Since the 1980s scholars have rescued rescue Hamilton from these interpretations and stressed his republicanismHouse of Representatives, arguing that Jefferson went too far in his attacksApril 23, 1790. Historians now portray Hamilton as *[[Second Report on Public Credit]]: Report on a moderate, mainstream republicanNational Bank. They point Communicated to the ''Federalist Papers'' as a core statement House of American valuesRepresentatives, and also Washington's "Farewell AddressDecember 14, 1790." One debate in *[[Report on the 1790s was whether true republican citizens should have "confidence" in their elected leaders, which was Hamilton's position, or maintain Establishment of a "vigilant" scrutiny Mint]]: Communicated to the House of themRepresentatives, which was Jefferson'sJanuary 28, 1791. Hamilton stressed confidence in his vision *[[Report on Manufactures]]: Communicated to the House of republican citizenship and freedom of the press. Hamilton's philosophyRepresentatives, argues martin (2005)December 5, is best understood as an energetic, elitist reformulation of republicanism1791.

==Death=Report on Public Credit===Hamilton's long standing rivalry with [[Aaron Burr]] eventually lead to Burr accusing Hamilton of [[slander]]. Hamilton replied that In the anti-Burr statements he had made were not slanderReport on Public Credit, but were instead the truth. The resulting argument brought Secretary made a lifetime of feuding to a head in controversial proposal that would have the form of a duel. The duel took place on federal government assume state debts incurred during the 11th of July 1804 at Weehawken, New JerseyRevolution. Hamilton believed that a gentleman shoots over his targetThis would, and that honor is served.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/hamilton/filmmore/pt_2.html</ref> Burr had no such belief. Hamilton shot over Burr's headin effect, but Burr's shot struck its target into Hamilton's body. Hamilton was taken away and after suffering horribly from give the wound throughout federal government much more power by placing the night, died the next day. <ref>[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000101 Biography]</ref> Hamiltoncountry's son, who was given most serious financial obligation in the same advice by his father that a gentleman shoots over his targethands of the federal, had earlier died in a duel rather than the same waystate governments.

==Reputation==No figure in American history has had so many ups and down, so many champions and detractors as Hamilton over the last two centuries. Historians continue to ask, "Was he a closet monarchist or a sincere republican? A victim of partisan politics or one of its most active promoters? A lackey for British interests or a foreign policy mastermind? An economic genius or a shill for special interests? The father primary criticism of a vigorous national government or the destroyer plan was spearheaded by [[United States Secretary of genuine federalism? A defender State|Secretary of governmental authority or a dangerous militarist?"<ref>Ambrose State]] Thomas Jefferson and Martin[[United States House of Representatives|Representative]] [[James Madison]]. Some states, ed. like Jefferson''The Many Faces s Virginia, had paid almost half of Alexander Hamilton'' (2006) ptheir debts, and felt that their taxpayers should not be assessed again to bail out the less provident. They further argued that the plan passed beyond the scope of the new Constitutional government. 11 </ref> ==Trivia==

Madison objected to Hamilton's proposal to cut the rate of interest and postpone payments on federal debt, as not being payment in full; he also objected to the speculative profits being made. Much of the national debt had been bonds issued to Continental veterans, in place of wages which the Continental Congress did not have the money to pay; as these continued to go unpaid, many of these bonds had been pawned for a small fraction of their value. Madison proposed to pay in full, but to divide payment between the original recipient and the present possessor. Others, along with like [[Benjamin FranklinSamuel Livermore]]of New Hampshire, wished to curb speculation, and save taxation, is one by paying only part of the very few non-presidents bond. The disagreements between Madison and Hamilton extended to be portrayed on American moneyother proposals Hamilton made to Congress, and drew in Jefferson when he returned from France. Hamilton's portrait is on supporters became known as Federalists and Jefferson's as Republicans. As Madison put it: :"I deserted Colonel Hamilton, or rather Colonel H. deserted me; in a word, the $10 billdivergence between us took place from his wishing to administration, while Franklin is on or rather to administer the $100 billGovernment into what he thought it ought to be..."<ref>Farrand, Max, ed., ''The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787'', 4 vols. (New Haven, CT, 1937), 3:533–4. </ref>

Hamilton eventually secured passage of his assumption plan by striking a deal with Jefferson and Madison. According to the terms, Hamilton was to use his influence to place the permanent national capital on the [[Potomac River]], and Jefferson and Madison were to encourage their friends to back Hamilton's assumption plan. In the end, Hamilton's assumption, together with his proposals for funding the debt, overcame legislative opposition and narrowly passed the House on July 26, 1790.<ref>{{cite book|title=Alexander Hamilton and the Growth of the New Nation|author=Miller, John|year=2003|publisher=Transaction Publishers|location=NotesNew Brunswick, USA, and London, UK|isbn=0765805510|page=251}}<references/ref>

==Further reading ==* Ellis, Joseph J. ''Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation'' (2002), won Pulitzer Prizethe U. [http://wwwS.amazon.com/Founding-Brothers-Revolutionary-Joseph-Ellis/dp/0375405445/refMint=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]* Ferling, John. ''A Leap in Hamilton helped found the Dark: The Struggle to Create [[United States Mint]]; the American Republic'' (Oxford University Press, 2003), good overview [[First Bank of the era* Brookhiser, Richard. United States|first national bank]]; a "System of Cutters"Alexander Hamilton, American". (1999) biography forming the [http://www.amazon.com/ALEXANDER-HAMILTON-American-Richard-Brookhiser/dp/0684863316/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083822&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search[Revenue Cutter Service]]* Chernow, Ron. "Alexander Hamilton". (2004) full length detailed biography now the [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Ron-Chernow/dp/B000UENRQU/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196084039&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search[United States Coast Guard]]* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979)and an elaborate system of duties, tariffs, biography by leading conservative historian; focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism. [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Biography-Forrest-McDonald/dp/039330048X/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]; [http://wwwexcises.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 The complete edition online from Questia] * McDonaldHamiltonian program replaced the chaotic financial system of the confederation era, Forrest. "Hamiltonin five years, Alexander"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000]with a modern apparatus which gave the new government financial stability, 5000 words* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait and gave investors sufficient confidence to invest in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://wwwgovernment bonds.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]

===BiographiesManufacturing and industry===* Ambrose, Douglas, and Robert W[[Image:DSCN2897 hamilton statue. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces jpg|thumb|Statue of Alexander Hamilton: The Life and Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father.'' (2006) 310ppby Franklin Simmons, essays by scholars; overlooking the [[http://www.amazon.com/Many-Faces-Alexander-Hamilton-Americas/dp/0814707149/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-7 excerpt and text searchGreat Falls of the Passaic River]* Cooke] in [[Paterson, Jacob E. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography.'' (1982) by leading scholar* FlexnerNew Jersey]], James Thomas. "The Young where Hamilton: A Biography". (1997) * Hacker, Louis M. ''Alexander Hamilton in envisioned using the American Tradition.'' (1957) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95039628 online editionfalls to power new factories]]* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 online edition] biography focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism. * McDonald, Forrest. next report was his "Hamilton, AlexanderReport on Manufactures"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000]Congress shelved the report without much debate, 5000 words* Miller, John C. except for Madison''Alexander s objection to Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959)s formulation of the General Welfare clause, full-length scholarly biography; [http://wwwwhich Hamilton construed liberally as a legal basis for his extensive programs.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-It has been often quoted by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]* Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton'' (2 vols, 1957–62), the most detailed scholarly biography; [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=33716230 online edition of vol 1[protectionist]** Mitchell, Broadus]s since. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Concise Biography'' (1976)<ref>Morison and Commager, 395pp* Nevins, Allanp. "Alexander Hamilton" in ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1934)* Randall, Willard Sterne. "Alexander HamiltonI: A Life"290. (2003) Popular. [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Willard-Sterne-Randall/dp/0060954663</ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083900&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]>

===Political philosophy===* ChanIn 1791, Michael D. "Alexander Hamilton on Slavery." ''Review while still Secretary of Politics'' 66 (Spring 2004): 207-31.* Fatovicthe Treasury, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2004 48(3): 429-444. Issn: 0092-5853 Fulltext in Swetswise, Ingenta, Jstor, Ebsco * Horton, James Oliver. "Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race worked in a Revolutionary Generation" ''New-York Journal of American History'' 2004 65(3): 16–24. ISSN 1551-5486 private capacity to help found the [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:88cftz6zXJYJ:www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Horton%2520-%2520Hamiltsvery_Race.pdf+james+horton+%22alexander+hamilton%22+slavery&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 online version]* Mason, Alpheus Thomas. "The Federalist--A Split Personality," ''American Historical Review'' 57 (1952): 625-43 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(195204)57%3A3%3C625%3ATFSP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z online at JSTORSociety for the Establishment of Useful Manufactures]]* Martin, Robert W. T. "Reforming Republicanism: Alexander Hamilton's Theory a private corporation that would use the power of Republican Citizenship and Press Liberty." ''Journal the [[Great Falls of the Early Republic'' 2005 25(1): 21-46. Issn: 0275-1275 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v025/25.1martin.html in Project MusePassaic River] * Rossiter, Clinton] to operate mills. ''Alexander Hamilton and Although the Constitution'' (1964)* Sheehancompany did not succeed in its original purpose, Colleen. "Madison V. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism And The Role Of Public Opinion" ''American Political Science Review'' 2004 98(3): 405–424. [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=245205 online abstract]* Stourzh, Gerald. ''Alexander Hamilton and it leased the land around the Idea of Republican Government'' (1970), * Staloff, Darren. "Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment falls to other mill ventures and the American Foundingcontinued to operate for over a century and a half." (2005)

===PoliticsEmergence of parties===* BassettDuring Hamilton's tenure as Treasury Secretary, John Spencerpolitical factions began to emerge. A Congressional caucus, led by James Madison and [[William Giles]], began as an opposition group to Hamilton's financial programs; Jefferson joined this group when he returned from France. Hamilton and his allies began to call themselves ''Federalists''. The Federalist Systemopposition group, 1789now referred to as the [[Democratic-1801Republican Party]], was then known by several names, including '' (1906) old scholarly survey; [Republicans'',<ref>{{cite web|title=Madison to Jefferson|date=1794-03-02|url=http://booksmemory.googleloc.comgov/bookscgi-bin/ampage?vidcollId=0qz0JCJMPjp9xrk7lF2zF07mjm&idfileName=LAoOAAAAIAAJ05/mjm05.db&printsecrecNum=toc&dq591|accessdate=bassett+%22federalist+system%22&sig2006-10-14|quote=CPcsG1aOwgXiDZ7TIRpl1bKO4P0 online edition]* Bowers, Claude G. ''Jefferson and Hamilton'' (1925), I see by a slashing attack on Hamilton as unamerican aristocrat * Charlespaper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, Joseph. "The Jay Treaty: The Origins at the instance of the American Party SystemRepublican party," in ''William and Mary Quarterly'', 3rd Serthat a committee is appointed for the like purpose.}} See also Smith, Volp. 12, No. 4. (Oct832.</ref> ''republicans'', 1955), pp. 581-630. [<ref>{{cite web|url=http://linksmemory.jstorloc.orggov/sicicgi-bin/query/r?sici=0043-5597ammem/mtj:@field%2819551028DOCID+@lit%29328tj060237%3A1229%3A4%3C581%3ATJTTOO%3E2.0.CO%3B229|title=Jefferson to Washington|date=1792-C online at JSTOR]*Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, ''05-23|quote=The Age of Federalism.'' (1993)republican party, who wish to preserve the most advanced history of politics government in its present form, are fewer in 1790s [http://wwwnumber.questia.com/library/book/They are fewer even when joined by thetwo, three, or half dozen anti-age-of-federalism-by-stanley-elkins-eric-mckitrickfederalists.jsp online edition]* Kurtz; Stephen G. ''The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795-1800'' 1957 [https://www.questia.com}}</PM.qst?a=o&d=14355519 online edition]* Miller, John C. ref> ''The Federalist Era: 1789-1801Jeffersonians'' (1960), scholarly survey* Nevins, Allan. and ''The Evening Post: A Century of JournalismDemocrats'' (1922) [http://books.google.com/books?id=q-F2daxBy1AC&pg=PA7&dq=inauthor:allan+inauthor:nevins&num=30&as_brr=1#PPA5,M1 online edition] ch 1 on Hamilton's ownership* Sharp, James. ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis.'' (1995), survey of politics in 1790s

===Finance===* Edling, Max M. "'So Immense The Federalists assembled a Power nationwide coalition in order to garner support for the Affairs of War': Alexander Administration, including the expansive financial programs Hamilton and had made Administration policy; the Restoration Democratic-Republicans built their own national coalition to oppose these Federalist programs. Both sides gained the support of Public Creditlocal political factions; each side developed its own partisan newspapers." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 2007 64(2): 287-326. in [[History CooperativeNoah Webster]]* Flaumenhaft, Harvey. ''The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton'' Duke University Press, 1992 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=37077611 online edition[John Fenno]]* McDonald, Forrest. ''The Presidency of George Washington'' (1974). * McNamara, Peter. ''Political Economy and Statesmanship: Smith, Hamilton, and eventually [[William Cobbett]] were prominent editors for the Foundation of the Commercial RepublicFederalists.'' (Northern Illinois University Press, 1997). 256 pp.* Nettels, Curtis P. ''The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815'' (1962). general survey of economic history [[Benjamin Franklin Bache]] and policy* White, Leonard D[[Philip Freneau]] edited major publications for the Democratic-Republicans. ''The Federalists'' (1949), detailed coverage Newspapers of how the Treasury and other departments both parties were created characterized by frequent personal attacks and operated. * Wright; Robert E. ''Hamilton Unbound: Finance and the Creation information of the American Republic'' Praeger (2002) [https://wwwquestionable veracity.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102032054 online edition]

===Foreign Policy===* BemisIn 1801, Samuel Flagg. Hamilton established a daily newspaper the ''JayNew-York Evening Post's Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy'' (1923) under editor [http://www[William Coleman]].questia.com/library/book/jays-treaty-a-studyIt is the oldest continually-published daily newspaper in-commerce-and-diplomacy-by-samuel-flagg-bemisthe U.jsp online edition]* Coleman, Aaron NS. "'A Second Bounaparty?': A Reexamination of Alexander Hamilton during the Franco–American Crisis, 1796–1801," ''Journal of and is now known as the Early Republic,'' Volume 28, Number 2, Summer 2008, pp. 183-214 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v028/28.2.coleman.html in Project Muse[New York Post]]* Combs, Jerald. A. ''The Jay Treaty: Political Background of Founding Fathers'' (1970) Combs dislikes Hamilton's quest for national power .<ref>Emery, Michael, and a "heroic state" dominating the Western HemisphereEmery, but concludes the Federalists "followed the proper policy" because the treaty preserved peace with Britain* HarperEdward, John Lamberton. ''American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton The Press and the Origins of U.S. Foreign Policy.America'' (2004) [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=220511093955403 online review]* Lycan, Gilbert L7th ed. ''Alexander Hamilton and American Foreign Policy: A Design for Greatness'' (1970),* SmithSimon & Schuster, Robert W1992, p. ''Keeping the Republic: Ideology and Early American Diplomacy74.'' (2004)* Walling, Karl-Friedrich. ''Republican Empire: Alexander Hamilton on War and Free Government'' (1999), </ref>

==Revolutionary wars=Personality=When France and Britain went to war in January 1793, all four members of the Cabinet were consulted on what to do (they unanimously agreed to remain neutral); and both Hamilton and Jefferson were major architects in working out the specific provisions which maintained and enforced that neutrality.<ref>Thomas, Charles Marion, ''American neutrality in 1793; a study in cabinet government'', Columbia, 1931, a survey of the process before Jefferson resigned at the end of 1793.</ref>  During Hamilton's last year in office, policy toward Britain became a major point of contention between the two parties. Hamilton and the Federalists wished for more trade with Britain, which would provide more revenue from tariffs; the Democratic-Republicans preferred an embargo to compel Britain to respect the rights of the United States and give up the forts which they still held on American soil, contrary to the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]].<ref>Combs, Jerald A., "[http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00195.html John Jay]", ''American National Biography'' (ANB), February 2000. Retrieved on May 14, 2008.</ref> In order to avoid war, Washington sent Chief Justice [[John Jay]], late in 1794, to negotiate with the British; Hamilton helped to draw up his instructions. The result was [[Jay's Treaty]], which, as the State Department says, "addressed few U.S. interests, and ultimately granted Britain additional rights".<ref>[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/nr/14318.htm John Jay’s Treaty, 1794–95], U.S. State Department.</ref> The treaty was extremely unpopular, and the Democratic-Republicans opposed it for its failure to redress previous grievances, and for its failure to address British violations of American neutrality during the war. Several European nations had formed a [[League of Armed Neutrality]] against incursions on their neutral rights; the Cabinet was also consulted on whether the United States should join it, and decided not to, but kept that decision secret. Jay, in London, threatened to join the League if U.S. rights were not respected, but this was ignored because Hamilton had revealed this decision in private to George Hammond, the British Minister to the United States, without telling Jay—or anyone else; it was unknown until Hammond's dispatches were read in the 1920s. This "amazing revelation" may have had limited effect on the negotiations; Jay did threaten to join the League at one point, but the British had other reasons not to view the League as a serious threat.<ref>Bemis, Samuel Flagg, ''Jay's Treaty'' (quoted); Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 411 ff.</ref> ==Retirement from federal service==Hamilton's conduct as Secretary was repeatedly investigated in Congress; some of the most serious charges emerged in the spring of 1794. In addition to the Reynolds affair, mentioned below, an incident from 1790 then came to light: Congress had appropriated money to pay the European creditors of the United States, and Hamilton had diverted part of the sum to domestic expenditure. Hamilton claimed that he had been authorized to act by Washington, but could provide no evidence. When Washington was consulted, he could not remember the transaction, but was certain that he would have made the condition that the change be consistent with legislation. Hamilton wrote an irate letter to Washington; he was very angry not to trusted unconditionally.<ref>Flexner, ''Washington'', pp. IV:153–4.</ref> Hamilton resigned as Secretary of the Treasury on December 1, 1794, immediately before Congress met again; his resignation was effective on January 31, 1795.<ref>Chernow, p. 479; ANB, "Alexander Hamilton".</ref> ===Affair===In 1791, Hamilton became involved in an affair with [[Maria Reynolds]] that badly damaged his reputation. Reynolds' husband, James, [[blackmailed]] Hamilton for money, threatening to inform Hamilton's wife. When James Reynolds was arrested for counterfeiting, he contacted several prominent members of the Democratic-Republican Party, most notably [[James Monroe]] and [[Aaron Burr]], touting that he could expose a top level official for corruption. When they interviewed Hamilton with their suspicions (presuming that James Reynolds could implicate Hamilton in an abuse of his position in Washington's Cabinet), Hamilton insisted he was innocent of any misconduct in public office and admitted to an affair with Maria Reynolds. Since this was not germane to Hamilton's conduct in office, Hamilton's interviewers did not publish about Reynolds. When rumors began spreading after his retirement, Hamilton published a confession of his affair, shocking his family and supporters by not merely confessing but also by narrating the affair in detail, thus injuring Hamilton's reputation for the rest of his life.  At first Hamilton accused Monroe of making his affair public, and challenged him to a duel. Aaron Burr stepped in and persuaded Hamilton that Monroe was innocent of the accusation. His well-known vitriolic temper led Hamilton to challenge several others to duels in his career. ===1796 presidential election===Hamilton's resignation as Secretary of the Treasury in 1795 did not remove him from public life. With the resumption of his law practice, he remained close to Washington as an adviser and friend. Hamilton influenced Washington in the composition of his [[George Washington's Farewell Address|Farewell Address]]; Washington and members of his Cabinet often consulted with him. In the election of 1796, under the Constitution as it stood then, each of the presidential [[Electoral College|Electors]] had two votes, which they were to cast for different men. The one with most votes would be President, the second, Vice President. This system was not designed for parties, which had been thought disreputable and factious. The Federalists planned to deal with this by having all their Electors vote for [[John Adams]], the Vice President, and all but a few for [[Thomas Pinckney]] of [[South Carolina]], then on his way home from a successful embassage to Spain. Jefferson chose Aaron Burr as his vice presidential running mate.  Hamilton, however, disliked Adams and saw an opportunity. He urged all the Northern Electors to vote for Adams and Pinckney, lest Jefferson get in. He cooperated with [[Edward Rutledge]] to have South Carolina's Electors vote for Jefferson and Pinckney. If all this worked, Pinckney would have more votes than Adams; Pinckney would be President, and Adams would remain Vice President. It did not work. The Federalists found out about it (even the French minister to the United States knew), and Northern Federalists voted for Adams but ''not'' for Pinckney, in sufficient numbers that Pinckney came in third and Jefferson became Vice President.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick; ''Age of Federalism'', pp. 523–8, 859. Rutledge had his own plan, to have Pinckney win with Jefferson as Vice President.</ref> Adams resented this, since he felt his service to the nation was much more extensive than Pinckney's.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, p. 515.</ref> Adams also resented Hamilton's influence with Washington and considered him overambitious and scandalous in his private life; Hamilton compared Adams unfavorably with Washington and thought him too emotionally unstable to be President. ===Quasi-War===During the [[Quasi-War]] of 1798–1800, and with Washington's strong endorsement, Adams reluctantly appointed Hamilton a [[major general]] of the army (essentially placing him in command since Washington could not leave Mt. Vernon). If full scale war broke out with France, Hamilton argued that the army should conquer the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas#North America|North American colonies]] of France's ally, Spain, bordering the United States.<ref name=mc327/> To fund this army, Hamilton had been writing incessantly to [[Oliver Wolcott]], his successor at the Treasury; [[William Loughton Smith]], of the House Ways and Means Committee; and Senator [[Theodore Sedgwick]] of Massachusetts. He directed them to pass a direct tax to fund the war. Smith was to resign in July of 1797, as Hamilton scolded him for slowness, and told Wolcott to tax houses instead of land.<ref>Newman, pp. 72–3.</ref>  The eventual program included a [[Stamp Act]], like that of the British before the Revolution, and an array of taxes on land, houses, and slaves, calculated at different rates in different states, and requiring difficult and intricate assessment of houses. This provoked resistance in southeastern Pennsylania, led primarily by men who had marched with Washington against the Whiskey Rebellion, such as [[John Fries]].<ref>Newman, pp. 44, 76–8.</ref> Hamilton aided in all areas of the Army's development, and officially served as the [[Commanding General of the United States Army|Senior Officer of the United States Army]] as a Major General from December 14, 1799 to June 15, 1800. The army was to guard against invasion from France. Hamilton also suggested that its strategy should involve marching into the possessions of Spain, then allied with France, and potentially even taking [[Louisiana Territory|Louisiana]] and Mexico. His correspondence further suggests that when he returned in military glory, he dreamed of setting up a properly energetic government, without any Jeffersonians. Adams, however, derailed all plans for war by opening negotiations with France.<ref name=mc327>Morison and Commager, p. 327.</ref> Adams had also held it right to retain Washington's cabinet, except for cause; he found, in 1800 (after Washington's death), that they were obeying Hamilton rather than himself, and fired several of them.<ref>ANB, "[[James McHenry]]"; he also fired [[Timothy Pickering]].</ref> ===1800 presidential election===[[Image:AlexanderHamiltonUSCapStat.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Hamilton in the [[United States Capitol rotunda]]]]In the 1800 election, Hamilton worked to defeat not only the rival Democratic-Republican candidates, but also his party's own nominee, John Adams. In New York, which Burr had won for Jefferson in May, Hamilton proposed a rerun of the election under different rules, with carefully drawn districts, each choosing an elector,<ref>The May 1800 election chose the New York legislature, which would in turn choose electors; Burr had won this by making it a referendum on the presidency, and by persuading better-qualified candidates to run, who declared their candidacy only after the Federalists had announced their ticket. Hamilton asked Jay and the lame-duck legislature to pass a law declaring a special federal election, in which each district would choose an elector. He also supplied a map, with as many Federalist districts as possible.</ref> so that the Federalists would split the electoral vote of New York. John Jay, a Federalist, who had given up the Supreme Court to be Governor of New York, wrote on the back of the letter the words, "Proposing a measure for party purposes which it would not become me to adopt," and declined to reply.<ref>Monaghan, pp. 419–421.</ref> John Adams was running this time with Pinckney's elder brother [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]]. On the other hand, Hamilton toured [[New England]], again urging Northern Electors to hold firm for this Pinckney, in the renewed hope to make Pinckney President; and he again intrigued in South Carolina. This time, the important reaction was from the Jeffersonian Electors, all of whom voted both for Jefferson and Burr to ensure that no such deal would result in electing a Federalist. (Burr had received only one vote from Virginia in 1796.) In September, Hamilton wrote a pamphlet (''Letter from Alexander Hamilton, Concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq. President of the United States'') which was highly critical of Adams, although it closed with a tepid endorsement. He mailed this to two hundred leading Federalists; when a copy fell into Democratic-Republican hands, they printed it. This hurt Adams's 1800 reelection campaign and split the Federalist Party, virtually assuring the victory of the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Jefferson, in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1800|election of 1800]]; it destroyed Hamilton's position among the Federalists.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, like other historians, speak of Hamilton's self-destructive tendencies in this connection.</ref> On the Federalist side, Governor [[Arthur Fenner]] of Rhode Island denounced these "jockeying tricks" to make Pinckney President, and one Rhode Island Elector voted for Adams and Jay. Jefferson and Burr tied for first and second; and Pinckney came in fourth.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 734–40.</ref> Jefferson had beaten Adams, but both he and his running mate, Aaron Burr, received 73 votes in the Electoral College. With Jefferson and Burr tied, the United States House of Representatives had to choose between the two men. (As a result of this election, the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]] was proposed and ratified, adopting the method under which presidential elections are held today.) Several Federalists who opposed Jefferson supported Burr, and for the first 35 ballots, Jefferson was denied a majority. Before the 36th ballot, Hamilton threw his weight behind Jefferson, supporting the arrangement reached by [[James A. Bayard (elder)|James A. Bayard]] of Delaware, in which five Federalist Representatives from Maryland and Vermont abstained from voting, allowing those states' delegations to go for Jefferson, ending the impasse and electing Jefferson [[President]] rather than Burr. Even though Hamilton did not like Jefferson and disagreed with him on many issues, he was quoted as saying, "At least Jefferson was honest." Hamilton felt that Burr was dangerous. Burr then became [[Vice President of the United States]]. When it became clear that he would not be asked to run again with Jefferson, Burr sought the New York governorship in 1804 with Federalist support, against the Jeffersonian [[Morgan Lewis]], but was defeated by forces including Hamilton.<ref>ANB, "Aaron Burr".</ref> ==Duel with Aaron Burr and death==[[Image:Hamilton-burr-duel.jpg|thumb|Hamilton fighting his fatal [[duel]] with [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Aaron Burr]] (the depiction is inaccurate: only the two seconds actually witnessed the duel)]]{{main|Burr-Hamilton duel}}Soon after the gubernatorial election in New York—in which [[Morgan Lewis (governor)|Morgan Lewis]], greatly assisted by Hamilton, defeated [[Aaron Burr]]—the ''Albany Register'' published Charles D. Cooper's letter, citing Hamilton's opposition to Burr and alleging that Hamilton expressed "a still more despicable opinion" of the Vice President at an upstate New York dinner party.<ref name=jbf/><ref>Kennedy, ''Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson'', p. 72.</ref> Burr, sensing an attack on his honor, and surely still stung by the political defeat, demanded an apology. Hamilton refused on the grounds that he could not recall the instance. Following an exchange of three testy letters, and despite the attempts of friends to avert a confrontation, a duel was nevertheless scheduled for July 11, 1804, along the west bank of the [[Hudson River]] on a rocky ledge in [[Weehawken, New Jersey]], a common dueling site at which Hamilton's eldest son, Philip, had been killed three years earlier. [[Image:Alexander Hamilton Grave.JPG|thumb|Hamilton's tomb in the graveyard of [[Trinity Church, New York]]]]At dawn, the duel began, and Vice President Aaron Burr shot Hamilton. Hamilton's shot broke a tree branch directly above Burr's head. A letter that he wrote the night before the duel states, "I have resolved, if our interview [duel] is conducted in the usual manner, and it pleases God to give me the opportunity, to reserve and throw away my first fire, and I have thoughts even of reserving my second fire", thus asserting an intention to miss Burr. The circumstances of the duel, and Hamilton's actual intentions, are still disputed. Neither of the seconds, Pendleton or Van Ness, could determine who fired first. Soon after, they measured and triangulated the shooting, but could not determine from which angle Hamilton fired. Burr's shot, however, hit Hamilton in the lower abdomen above the right hip. The bullet ricocheted off Hamilton's second or third [[False ribs|false rib]], fracturing it and caused considerable damage to his internal organs, particularly his [[liver]] and [[Thoracic diaphragm|diaphragm]] before becoming lodged in his first or second [[Lumbar vertebrae|lumbar vertebra]]. Chernow considers the circumstances to have indicated Burr to have fired second, and taken deliberate aim. If a duelist decided not to aim at his opponent there was a well-known procedure, available to everyone involved, for doing so. According to Freeman, Hamilton apparently did not follow this procedure; if he had, Burr might have followed suit, and Hamilton's death may have been avoided. It was a matter of honor among gentlemen to follow these rules. Because of the high incidence of [[septicemia]] and death resulting from torso wounds, a high percentage of duels employed this procedure of throwing away fire.<ref name=jbf>{{cite journal|author=Freeman, Joanne B|url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597%28199604%293%3A53%3A2%3C289%3ADAPRTB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S|title=Dueling as Politics: Reinterpreting the Burr–Hamilton Duel|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series|volume=53|issue=2|month=April 1996|pages=289–318|format=subscription|publisher=Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture}}</ref> Years later, when told that Hamilton may have misled him at the duel, the ever-laconic Burr replied, "Contemptible, if true."<ref>Wheelan, Joseph, ''Jefferson's Vendetta: The Pursuit of Aaron Burr and the Judiciary'', New York, Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2005, ISBN 0786714379, p. 90.</ref> Hamilton was ferried back to New York. After final visits from his family and friends and considerable suffering, Hamilton died on the following afternoon, July 12, 1804. [[Gouverneur Morris]], a political ally of Hamilton's, gave the eulogy at his funeral and secretly established a fund to support his widow and children. Hamilton was buried in the [[Trinity Churchyard Cemetery]] in [[Manhattan]]. ==Legacy==[[Image:US10dollarbill-Series 2004A.jpg|left|thumb|350px|Alexander Hamilton on the Series 2004A [[U.S. ten dollar bill|$10 Federal Reserve Note]], based on an 1805 portrait by [[John Trumbull]]]] From the start, Hamilton set a precedent as a Cabinet member by formulating federal programs, writing them in the form of reports, pushing for their approval by appearing in person to argue them on the floor of the United States Congress, and then implementing them. Hamilton and the other Cabinet members were vital to Washington, as there was no president before him (under the Constitution) to set precedents for him to follow in national situations such as seditions and foreign affairs. Another of Hamilton's legacies was his pro-federal interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. Though the Constitution was drafted in a way that was somewhat ambiguous as to the balance of power between national and state governments, Hamilton consistently took the side of greater federal power at the expense of states. As Secretary of the Treasury, he established—against the intense opposition of Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson—the country's first national bank. Hamilton justified the creation of this bank, and other increased federal powers, with Congress's constitutional powers to issue currency, to regulate interstate commerce, and anything else that would be "necessary and proper". Jefferson, on the other hand, took a stricter view of the Constitution: parsing the text carefully, he found no specific authorization for a national bank. This controversy was eventually settled by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] in ''[[McCulloch v. Maryland]]'', which in essence adopted Hamilton's view, granting the federal government broad freedom to select the best means to execute its constitutionally enumerated powers, specifically the doctrine of [[implied powers]]. Hamilton's policies as Secretary of the Treasury have had an immeasurable effect on the United States Government and still continue to influence it. In 1962 during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], the [[U.S. Navy]] was still using intership communication protocols written by Hamilton for the original U.S. Coast Guard. His constitutional interpretation, specifically of the [[necessary-and-proper clause]], set precedents for federal authority that are still used by the courts and are considered an authority on constitutional interpretation. The prominent French diplomat [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord|Charles Maurice de Talleyrand]], who spent 1794 in the United States, wrote "I consider [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]], [[Henry Vassall-Fox, 3rd Baron Holland|Fox]], and Hamilton the three greatest men of our epoch, and if I were forced to decide between the three, I would give without hesitation the first place to Hamilton", adding that Hamilton had intuited the problems of European conservatives. Talleyrand, who helped demolish the [[First French Republic]], would have preferred to have a coalition of European monarchies curtail the solitary republicanism of the United States, which would permit the peaceful recreation of the French colonial empire of Louis XIV; he found himself and Hamilton in general agreement.<ref>Adams, pp. 238–43, quoting Talleyrand from ''Études sur la République'': ''Je considère Napoleon, Fox, et Hamilton comme les trois plus grands hommes de notre époque, et si je devais me prononcer entre les trois, je donnerais sans hesiter la première place à Hamilton. Il avait deviné l'Europe.''</ref> Opinions of Hamilton have run the gamut: both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson viewed him as unprincipled and dangerously [[aristocracy|aristocratic]]. He was sufficiently admired by the time of the [[American Civil War]] that his portrait began to appear on [[United States currency|U.S. currency]], and now appears on the [[US ten dollar bill|$10 bill]]; after the Civil War, a time of high tariffs, he was highly praised.<ref>The word "apotheosis" in Brant, p. 201, may in context refer to historians, such as [[James Ford Rhodes]].</ref> [[Herbert Croly]], [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], and [[Theodore Roosevelt]] directed attention to him at the end of the nineteenth century in the interest of an active federal government, whether or not supported by tariffs. Several nineteenth and twentieth century [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]s entered politics by writing laudatory biographies of Hamilton.<ref>Flexner, Introduction; [[Henry Cabot Lodge|Lodge, Henry Cabot]], ''Alexander Hamilton'', written while a junior professor; [[Arthur H. Vandenburg|Vandenburg, Arthur H.]], ''The Greatest American'', 1922, while still a newspaper editor; for the effect on his career of his "advocacy of his party's views", see ANB, "[http://www.anb.org/articles/06/06-00671.html?a=1&n=Vandenberg&ia=-at&ib=-bib&d=10&ss=0&q=2 Arthur H. Vandenburg]".</ref> Hamilton's portrait began to appear during the [[American Civil War]] on the $2, $5, $10, and $50 notes. His face continues to appear on the front of the ten dollar bill. Hamilton also appears on the $500 Series EE Savings Bond. The source of the face on the $10 bill is [[John Trumbull]]'s 1805 portrait of Hamilton, in the portrait collection of [[New York City Hall]].<ref>''[[The New York Times]]'', "[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/06/nyregion/06portraits.html?ref=nyregion In New York, Taking Years Off the Old, Famous Faces Adorning City Hall]", December 6, 2006.</ref> On the south side of the Treasury Building in [[Washington, D.C.]] is a statue of Hamilton. Hamilton's upper [[Manhattan]] home is preserved as [[Hamilton Grange National Memorial]], with a statue of Hamilton at the entrance. The historic structure, already removed from its original location many years ago, is being moved again—from its current position, sandwiched between two masonry buildings, to a spot in a nearby park on land that was once part of the Hamilton estate.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/hagr/ Hamilton Grange National Memorial (U.S. National Park Service)]</ref> It is expected to reopen to the public in 2009. Multiple towns throughout the United States have been named after Hamilton. ===Family===Hamilton's widow, Elizabeth (known as Eliza or Betsy), survived him for fifty years, until 1854; Hamilton had referred to her as "best of wives and best of women". An extremely religious woman, Eliza spent much of her life working to help widows and orphans. After Hamilton's death, Eliza sold the country house, [[Hamilton Grange National Memorial|the Grange]], that she and Hamilton had built together from 1800 to 1802. She cofounded New York's first private orphanage, the New York Orphan Asylum Society. Despite the Reynolds affair, Alexander and Eliza were very close, and as a widow she always strove to guard his reputation and enhance his standing in American history. Hamilton and Elizabeth had eight children, including two named Phillip. The elder Philip, Hamilton's first child (born January 22, 1782), was killed in 1801 in a duel with George I. Eacker, whom he had publicly insulted in a Manhattan theater. The second Philip, Hamilton's last child, was born on June 2, 1802, after the first Philip was killed. Their other children were Angelica, born September 25, 1784; Alexander, born May 16, 1796; [[James Alexander Hamilton|James Alexander]] (April 14, 1788 – September 1878);<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9E05E2DE123CE03BBC4E51DFBF668383669FDE James Alexander Hamilton obituary], ''[[The New York Times]]'', September 26, 1878.</ref> John Church, born August 22, 1792; [[William S. Hamilton|William Stephen]], born August 4, 1797; and Eliza, born November 26, 1799.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} ===On slavery===Rob Weston has described modern scholarly views on Hamilton's attitude to slavery as viewing Hamilton as anything from a "steadfast abolitionist" to a "hypocrite"; Weston's view is that he was deeply ambivalent. Hamilton's first polemic against King George's ministers contains a paragraph which speaks of the evils which "slavery" to the British would bring upon the Americans. McDonald sees this as an attack on actual slavery; such hostility was quite common in 1776.<ref>McManus; "Many national leaders including Washington, Franklin, Jefferson, Madison, Hamilton, John Adams, John Jay, Gouverneur Morris, and Rufus King, saw slavery as an immense problem, a curse, a blight, or a national disease"; David Brion Davis, ''Inhuman Bondage'', p. 156; Morison and Commager quote Patrick Henry's regrets at being unable to give up the comforts of slaveowning.</ref> During the Revolutionary War, there was a series of proposals to arm slaves, free them, and compensate their masters. The first of these projects was performed in August 1776, by [[Jonathan Dickinson Sargeant]];<ref>''Arming Slaves'', pp. 192–3, 206.</ref> Rhode Island had formed the First Rhode Island regiment in 1777, which fought the [[Battle of Rhode Island]]; and there were other black units.<ref>Kaplan, Sidney, ''The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution'', pp. 64 ff.</ref> Freeing any enlisted slaves had also become customary by then both for the British, who did not compensate their American masters, and for the Continental Army; some states were to require it before the end of the war.<ref>McManus, pp. 153–8.</ref> In 1779, Hamilton's friend [[John Laurens]] suggested such a unit be formed under his command, to relieve besieged [[Charleston, South Carolina]]; Hamilton wrote a letter to the Continental Congress to create up to four battalions of slaves for combat duty, and free them. Congress recommended that South Carolina (and Georgia) acquire up to three thousand slaves, if they saw fit; they did not, even though the South Carolina governor and Congressional delegation had supported the plan in Philadelphia.<ref>Mitchell, pp. I:175–7, I:550 n. 92, citing the [http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc01380)) Journals of the Continental Congress], March 29, 1779; Wallace, p. 455. Congress offered to compensate the masters after the war.</ref> Hamilton argued that blacks' natural faculties were as good as those of free whites, and he forestalled objections by citing [[Frederick the Great]] and others as praising obedience and lack of cultivation in soldiers; he also argued that if the Americans did not do this, the British would (as they had elsewhere). One of his biographers has cited this incident as evidence that Hamilton and Laurens saw the Revolution and the struggle against slavery as inseparable.<ref>[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch15s24.html Hamilton to Jay], March 14, 1779; Chernow, p. 121; McManus, pp. 154–7.</ref> Hamilton later attacked his political opponents as demanding freedom for themselves and refusing to allow it to blacks.<ref>McDonald, p. 34; Flexner, pp. 257–8.</ref>  In January 1785, he attended the second meeting of the [[New York Manumission Society]] (NYMS). [[John Jay]] was president and Hamilton was secretary; he later became president.<ref>McManus, p. 168.</ref> He was also a member of the committee of the society which put a bill through the New York Legislature banning the ''export'' of slaves from New York;<ref>Chernow, p. 216.</ref> three months later, Hamilton returned a fugitive slave to [[Henry Laurens]] of South Carolina.<ref>Littlefield, p. 126, citing Syrett, pp. 3:605–8. Mention in Wills, p. 209, that as Treasury Secretary Hamilton arranged to recapture one of Washington's slaves a decade later, is a chronological error; it was his successor, [[Oliver Wolcott, Jr.|Oliver Wolcott]] of Connecticut.</ref>  Hamilton never supported forced emigration for freed slaves; it has been argued from this that he would be comfortable with a multiracial society, and this distinguished him from his contemporaries.<ref>Horton, p. 22.</ref> In international affairs, he supported [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]]'s black government in [[Haiti]] after the revolt that overthrew French control, as he had supported aid to the slaveowners in 1791—both measures hurt France.<ref>Horton; Kennedy, pp. 97–8; Littlefield; Wills, pp. 35, 40.</ref> He may have owned household slaves himself (the evidence for this is indirect; McDonald interprets it as referring to paid employees), and he did buy and sell them on behalf of others. He supported a [[gag rule]] to keep divisive discussions of slavery out of Congress, and he supported the compromise by which the United States could not abolish the slave trade for twenty years.<ref>Flexner, p. 39.</ref> When the Quakers of New York petitioned the [[1st United States Congress|First Congress]] (under the Constitution) for the abolition of the slave trade, and Benjamin Franklin and the Pennsylvania Abolition Society petitioned for the abolition of slavery, the NYMS did not act.<ref>McDonald, p. 177.</ref> ===On economics===Alexander Hamilton is sometimes considered the "[[patron saint]]" of the [[American School (economics)|American School]] of economic philosophy that, according to one historian, dominated economic policy after 1861.<ref>Lind, Michael, ''Hamilton's Republic'', 1997, pp. xiv–xv, 229–30.</ref> He firmly supported government intervention in favor of business, after the manner of [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]], as early as the fall of 1781.<ref>Chernow, p. 170, citing ''Continentalist'' V, published April 1782, but written in fall 1781; Syrett, p. 3:77.</ref>  Hamilton opposed the British ideas of [[free trade]] which he believed skewed benefits to colonial/imperial powers, in favor of U.S. [[protectionism]] which he believed would help develop the fledgling nation's emerging economy. [[Henry C. Carey]] was inspired by his writings. Some say{{Who|date=September 2008}} he influenced the ideas and work of German [[Friedrich List]]. ===Hamilton's religion===In his early life, he was an orthodox and conventional, though not deeply pious, Presbyterian. From 1777 to 1792, he appears to have been completely indifferent, and made jokes about God at the Constitutional Convention. During the French Revolution, he had an "opportunistic religiosity", using Christianity for political ends and insisting that Christianity and Jefferson's democracy were incompatible. After his misfortunes of 1801, he asserted the truth of the Christian revelation. He proposed a Christian Constitutional Society in 1802, to take hold of "some strong feeling of the mind" to elect "''fit'' men" to office; but Hamilton wrote also of "Christian welfare societies" for the poor. He was not a member of any denomination, but led his family in the Episcopal service the Sunday before the duel. After he was shot, Hamilton requested communion first from [[Benjamin Moore]], the Episcopal [[Episcopal Diocese of New York|Bishop of New York]], who initially declined to administer the Sacrament chiefly because he did not wish to sanction the practice of dueling. Hamilton then requested communion from Presbyterian pastor [[John Mason]], who declined on the grounds that Presbyterians did not [[Reserved sacrament|reserve the Sacrament]]. After Hamilton spoke of his belief in God's mercy, and of his desire to renounce dueling, Bishop Moore reversed his decision, and administered communion to Hamilton.<ref>Adair and Harvey, "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597%28195504%293%3A12%3A2%3C308%3AWAHACS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 Christian Statesman?]", ''passim''. Hamilton's early faith is a deduction: Livingstone and Knox would have chosen to sponsor only an orthodox young man. Quotes on the Christian Constitutional Society are from Hamilton's letter to James A. Bayard of April 1802, quoted by Adair and Harvey, who see this as a great change from the military preparations and Sedition Act of 1798. For Bishop Moore, see also Chernow, p. 707. See McDonald, p. 3, on Hamilton's secular ambition, who adds, p. 356, that Hamilton's faith "had not entirely departed" him before the crisis of 1801.</ref> ===Memorial at colleges===Alexander Hamilton served as one of the first trustees of the [[Hamilton-Oneida Academy]] when the school opened in 1793. When the academy received a college charter in 1812 the school was formally renamed [[Hamilton College]]. There is a prominent statue of Alexander Hamilton in front of the school's chapel (commonly referred to as the "Al-Ham" statue) and the [[Burke Library]] has an extensive collection of Hamilton's personal documents. [[Columbia University|Columbia College]], Hamilton's alma mater, whose students formed his militia artillery company and fired some of the first shots against the British, has official memorials to Hamilton. The college's main classroom building for the humanities is Hamilton Hall, and a large statue of Hamilton stands in front of it. The university press has published his complete works in a multivolume [[letterpress]] edition. The main administration building of the [[Coast Guard Academy]] is named Hamilton Hall to commemorate Hamilton's creation of the [[United States Revenue Cutter Service]], one of the entities that was combined to form the [[United States Coast Guard]]. ==References==:''"The long tradition of Hamilton biography has, almost without exception, been laudatory in the extreme. Facts have been exaggerated, moved around, omitted, misunderstood and imaginatively created. The effect has been to produce a spotless champion...Those little satisfied with this reading of American history have struck back by depicting Hamilton as a devil devoted to undermining all that was most characteristic and noble in American life."'' James Thomas Flexner, ''The Young Hamilton'', pp. 3–4. ===Secondary sources===* Ambrose[[Henry Adams]], ''History of the United States of America under the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson'', Library of America 1986, ISBN 0521324831*Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick: ''Age of Federalism'' (New York, Oxford University Press, 1993). [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-age-of-federalism-by-stanley-elkins-eric-mckitrick.jsp online edition]*[[Samuel Eliot Morison]] and [[Henry Steele Commager]]: ''Growth of the American Republic'' (New York, Oxford University Press, 1969; other eds as cited). ===Biographies===*Brookhiser, Richard. ''Alexander Hamilton, American''. Free Press, (1999) (ISBN 0-684-83919-9).*Chernow, Ron. ''Alexander Hamilton''. Penguin Books, (2004) (ISBN 1-59420-009-2). full length detailed biography*Ellis, Joseph J. ''[[Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation]]'' (2002), won Pulitzer Prize.*Ellis, Joseph J. ''His Excellency: George Washington''. (2004).*Flexner, James Thomas. ''The Young Hamilton: A Biography''. Fordham University Press, (1997) (ISBN 0-8232-1790-6).*Fleming, Thomas. ''Duel: Alexander Hamilton, Aaron Burr, and the Future of America''. (2000) (ISBN 0-465-01737-1).*McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography''(1982) (ISBN 0-393-30048-X), biography focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism. *Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]*Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton'' (2 vols., 1957–62), the most detailed scholarly biography; also published in abridged edition*Randall, Willard Sterne. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Life''. HarperCollins, (2003) (ISBN 0-06-019549-5). Popular.*[[Don Winslow]] ''Alexander Hamilton: In Worlds Unknown'' (Script and Film New York Historical Society). ===Specialized studies===*Douglass Adair and Marvin Harvey: "[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597%28195504%293%3A12%3A2%3C308%3AWAHACS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 Was Alexander Hamilton a Christian Statesman?]" ''The William and Mary Quarterly'', 3rd Ser., Vol. 12, No. 2, Alexander Hamilton: 1755–1804. (Apr., 1955), pp. 308–29. [[JSTOR]] URL.*''Arming slaves: from classical times to the modern age'', Christopher Leslie Brown and Philip D. Morgan, eds. esp. 180–208 on the American Revolution, by Morgan and A. J. O'Shaubhnessy.*Douglas Ambrose and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life & Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father '' (2006) .* FreemanBrant, Joanne B. Irving: ''Affairs The Fourth President: a Life of HonorJames Madison''. Bobbs-Merill, 1970. A one-volume recasting of Brant's six-volume life. *Burns, Eric. ''Infamous Scribblers: National Politics in The Founding Fathers and the New RepublicRowdy Beginnings of American Journalism.'' (20012007). essential *Chan, Michael D. "Alexander Hamilton on the meaning Slavery." ''Review of duelsPolitics'' 66 (Spring 2004): 207–31.*Fatovic, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2004 48(3): 429–44. Issn: 0092-5853 Fulltext in Swetswise, Ingenta, Jstor, Ebsco .*Flaumenhaft; Harvey. ''The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton'' Duke University Press, 1992.*Flexner, James Thomas. ''George Washington.'' Little Brown, 1965–72. Four volumes, with various subtitles, cited as "Flexner, ''Washington''". Vol. IV. ISBN 0316286028.*Levine, Yitzchok. [http://www.common-placejewishpress.orgcom/volcontent.cfm?contentid=21464&sContentid=1 "The Jews Of Nevis And Alexander Hamilton."] ''Glimpses Into American Jewish History'', The Jewish Press. May 2, 2007.*Harper, John Lamberton. ''American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of U.S. Foreign Policy.'' (2004).*Horton, James Oliver. "Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation" ''New-02/noYork Journal of American History'' 2004 65(3): 16–24. ISSN 1551-025486 [http:/author/ 66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:88cftz6zXJYJ:www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Horton%2520-%2520Hamiltsvery_Race.pdf+james+horton+%22alexander+hamilton%22+slavery&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 online interviewversion].* Kennedy, Roger G. ; ''Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character'' Oxford UP, University Press (2000 [https://www).questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59887100 online edition]* Knott, Stephen F. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth'' University Press of Kansas, (2002) (ISBN 0-7006-1157-6.*Richard H. Kohn, "[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1918650 The Inside History of the Newburgh Conspiracy: America and the Coup d'Etat]"; ''The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series'', Vol. 27, No. 2 (Apr., 1970), pp. 188–220. [[JSTOR]] link. A review of the evidence on Newburgh, source for most more recent coverage. Despite the title, Kohn is doubtful that a ''coup d'état'' was ever seriously attempted.*Harold Larsen: "[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1925345.pdf Alexander Hamilton: The Fact and Fiction of His Early Years]" The William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., Vol. 9, No. 2. (Apr., 1952), pp. 139–51. [[JSTOR]] link. *Littlefield, Daniel C. "John Jay, the Revolutionary Generation, and Slavery." ''New York History'' 2000 81(1):91–132. ISSN 0146-437X.*[[Milton Lomask]], ''Aaron Burr, the Years from Princeton to Vice President, 1756–1805''. Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1979. ISBN 0374100160. First volume of two, but this contains Hamilton's lifetime. *Martin, Robert W.T. "Reforming Republicanism: Alexander Hamilton's Theory of Republican Citizenship and Press Liberty." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 2005 25(1):21–46. Issn: 0275-1275 Fulltext online in Project Muse and Ebsco.*McManus, Edgar J. ''History of Negro Slavery in New York''. Syracuse University Press, 1966. *Mitchell, Broadus: "The man who 'discovered' Alexander Hamilton". ''Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society'' 1951. 69:88–115.*Stryker, William S[cudder].: ''The Battles of Trenton and Princeton''; Houghton Mifflin, 1898. *Monaghan, Frank: ''John Jay''. Bobbs-Merrill (1935). *Nettels, Curtis P. ''The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815'' (1962). *Newman, Paul Douglas: ''Fries's Rebellion; The Enduring Struggle for the American Revolution''. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004. *Jack N. Rakove: ''The beginnings of National Politics: an interpretive history of the Continental Congress'', Knopf, 1979. *Rossiter, Clinton. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution'' (1964).*Sharp, James. ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis.'' (1995), survey of politics in 1790s.*Sheehan, Colleen. "Madison V. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism And The Role Of Public Opinion" ''American Political Science Review'' 2004 98(3): 405–24. *Smith, Robert W. ''Keeping the Republic: Ideology and Early American Diplomacy.'' (2004).*Staloff, Darren. "Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding." (2005).*Stourzh, Gerald. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government'' (1970).*Thomas, Charles Marion: ''American neutrality in 1793; a study in cabinet government'', Columbia, 1931.* Trees, Andrew S. "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton." ''Reviews in American History'' 2005 33(1): 8-148–14. Issn: 0048-7511 Fulltext: in Project Muse .* Trees, Andrew S. ''The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character.'' (2004).*Wallace, David Duncan: ''Life of Henry Laurens, with a sketch of the life of Lieutenant-Colonel John Laurens'' Putnam (1915) .*Weston, Rob N. "Alexander Hamilton and the Abolition of Slavery in New York". ''Afro-Americans in New York Life and History'' 1994 18(1): 31–45. ISSN 0364-2437 An undergraduate paper, which concludes that Hamilton was ambivalent about slavery. *White, Leonard D. ''The Federalists'' (1949), coverage of how the Treasury and other departments were created and operated.*Richard D. White; "Political Economy and Statesmanship: Smith, Hamilton, and the Foundation of the Commercial Republic" ''Public Administration Review'', Vol. 60, 2000.*Wright, Robert E. ''Hamilton Unbound: Finance and the Creation of the American Republic'' Praeger (2002).*Robert E. Wright: ''One Nation Under Debt: Hamilton, Jefferson, and the History of What We Owe'' New York: McGraw-Hill (2008).

* FreemanHamilton, Alexander. (Joanne B.Freeman, ed. ) ''Alexander Hamilton: Writings'' (2001), [http://www.loa.org / The Library of America] edition, 1108 pages. Most ISBN 978-1-93108204-4; all of Hamilton's major writings and many of his letters [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Writings-Library-America/dp/1931082049/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]* Syrett, Harold C. ed; Cooke, Jacob E.; and Chernow, Barbara, eds. ''The Papers of Alexander Hamilton'' (27 vol, Columbia University Press, 1961–87); includes all letters and writing by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; this is the definitive letterpress edition, heavily annotated by scholars; it is available in larger academic libraries; there is also a separate .*Goebel, Julius, Jr., and Smith, Joseph H., eds., ''The Law seriesPractice of Alexander Hamilton'' (5 vols. , Columbia University Press, 1964–80); the legal counterpart to the ''Papers of Alexander Hamilton.'' * Morris, Richard. ed. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation'' (1957), excerpts from AH's writings, by topic, 617pp* Morton J. Frisch ed. ''Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton.'' Morton J. Frisch ed. (1985), 528pp. [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58312678 online edition]* ''The Works of Alexander Hamilton'' edited by Henry Cabot Lodge (1904) [http://books.google.com/books?vidid=OCLC01013S4CoWxuxuFAC&idq=R7TukmWbcrcCalexander+hamilton+cabot&printsecdq=toc alexander+hamilton+cabot&pgis=1 full text online at Google Books] [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Author?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php?recordID%3Fperson=0135 201&Itemid=28 online in HTML edition]. This is the only online collection of Hamilton's writings and letters. Published in 10 volumes, containing about 1.3 million words. [http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Hamilton%2C%20alexander%20works full text online at archive.org]* ''[[Federalist Papers'']] under the shared pseudonym "Publius" by Alexander Hamilton (c. 52 articles), [[James Madison]] (28 articles) and [[John Jay]] (five articles)*[[Report on Manufactures]], his economic program for the United States.*[[Report on Public Credit]], his financial program for the United States.* Cooke, Jacob E. ed., ''Alexander Hamilton: A Profile'' (1967), short excerpts from AH and his critics. * Cunningham, Noble E. ''Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation'' (2000), short collection of primary sources with commentary.* Taylor, George Rogers. , ed., ''Hamilton and the National Debt'' , 1950, excerpts from all sides in 1790s . ===Notes==={{reflist|2}} ==External links=={{sisterlinks|s=Author:Alexander Hamilton}}*[http://www.questiapbs.org/wgbh/amex/hamilton/ Alexander Hamilton on PBS' American Experience]*[http://www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/ The New-York Historical Society's Alexander Hamilton Exhibit]*[http://ideas.repec.org/p/wpa/wuwpeh/9610001.html Alexander Hamilton and The Origins of Wall Street] (subscription required)*[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253372/Alexander-Hamilton Encyclopaedia Britannica: Alexander Hamilton]*{{gutenberg author|id=Hamilton+Alexander|name=Alexander Hamilton}}*[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch4s31.html Hamilton's Report on Manufactures (Columbia University Press)]*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000101 Hamilton's Congressional biography]*[http://web.archive.org/web/20001110000000/www.ios.com/~alstone/forthebk.htm Alexander Hamilton: Debate over a National Bank (February 23, 1791)]*[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/bookcgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABQ7578-0123-7 Alexander Hamilton] by [[Henry Cabot Lodge]]*[http://www.footnote.com/page/146 Alexander Hamilton's Plan of Government]*[http://www.nps.gov/hagr/ Hamilton Grange National Memorial]*[http://duel2004.weehawkenhistory.org/reenactscript.pdf Reenactment of the Burr–Hamilton duel on July 12, 2004]. *[http://elections.lib.tufts.edu/aas_portal/index.xq A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825]*[http://bostonreview.net/BR32.6/hogeland.php Inventing Alexander Hamilton, The troubling embrace of the founder of American finance]*[http://www.thirteen.org/forum/alexander-hamilton-and-the-national-debttriumph-byof-georgenew-rogersyork-taylorcity Alexander Hamilton and the National Triumph of New York City] A WNET video lecture; overview of Hamilton's career{{start box}}{{s-off}}{{succession box|before=''(none)''|title=[[United States Secretary of the Treasury]]|years=1789–1795|after=[[Oliver Wolcott, Jr.jsp online edition]]}}{{s-mil}}{{succession box|title=[[Commanding General of the United States Army|Senior Officer of the United States Army]]|before=[[George Washington]]|after=[[James Wilkinson]]|years=1799–1800}}{{end box}}{{United States Constitution signatories}}{{USSecTreas}}{{Federalist Papers}}{{Washington cabinet}}<!--Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]--><!--See text for contending birthdates-->

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