A '''government'{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}{{Essay-like|date=March 2008}}:'' is an entity that has For the government of parliamentary systems, see [[authorityExecutive (government)]] to make and enforce .[[lawsImage:Government-Vedder-Highsmith-detail-1.jpeg|thumb|300px|Detail from [[Elihu Vedder]] within a geopolitical boundary, ''Government'' (1896). Governments are established by a set Library of penultimate norms, also known as Congress [[constitutionsThomas Jefferson Building]], Washington, D.C. In the [[American]] system {{Wiktionarypar|government}}A '''government''' is "the organization, that is the governing authority of a political unit,"<ref>[[democracy]http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=government Wordnet Search 3.0: Government]</ref> "the ruling power in a political society, some laws are created by "<ref>[[representatives]http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Government LoveToKnow: 1911 Encyclopedia: Government]</ref> and the apparatus through which a governing body functions and exercises authority. Around <ref>American 760</ref> "Government, with the world authority to make laws, to adjudicate disputes, and throughout [[history]]to issue administrative decisions, there have been many types and with a monopoly of governmentsauthorized force where it fails to persuade, is an indispensable means, ''proximately'', to the peace of communal life."<ref name="adler 80">Adler 80-81</ref> "A compulsory territorial monopolist of protection and jurisdiction equipped with the power to tax without unanimous consent."<ref>{{cite book|title=The Myth of National Defense|author=Hoppe, Hans-Hermann|pages=8|isbn=0-945466-37-4|year=2003}}</ref> Statist theorists maintain that the necessity of government derives from the fact that the people need to live in communities, yet personal autonomy must be constrained in these communities.
==Types of Government==Basic categories of government include:* A [[Aristocracystate]]* or [[Confederacy]]* [[Democracy]]* [[Dictatorship]]* [[Meritocracy]]* [[Monarchy]]* [[Oligarchy]]* [[Plutocracy]]* [[Socialist Stateprovince]]of sufficient size and complexity will have different layers or levels of government: local, regional and national.
According to the == Types of government ==[[Image:DSC04509.JPG|thumb|The [[U.S.Capitol]] houses the main workings of [[Central Intelligence AgencyUnited States|American]]democracy.]]*[[Anarchy]] - Absence, each or lack of government.<ref>American 65</ref><ref>Technically, anarchy is not a form of government</ref>*[[Constitutional Monarchy]] - A government that has a king, but his/her power is strictly limited by the world's governments can government. Example: [[United Kingdom]].*[[Democracy]] - Rule by a government where the [[people]] as a whole hold the power. It may be described exercised by onethem ([[direct democracy]]), or through representatives chosen by them ([[representative democracy]]).<ref>American 483</ref><ref>[[Takis Fotopoulos|Fotopoulos, Takis]], ''The Multidimensional Crisis and [[Inclusive Democracy]]''. (Athens: Gordios, 2005). ([http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/fotopoulos/english/brbooks/multi_crisis_id/multi_crisis_id.htm English translation] of the book with the same title published in Greek).</ref><ref name="victoria">{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/SARC/E-Democracy/Final_Report/Glossary.htm|title=Victorian Electronic Democracy : Glossary|date=July 28, 2005|accessdate=2007-12-14}}</ref>*[[Despotism]] - Governing by a combination single individual, the despot, who wields all the power and authority ofthe state. Other persons are subsidiary to the despot. *[[Dictatorship]] - Rule by an individual who has full power over the country.<ref>American 503</ref> See also [[Autocracy]] and [[Stratocracy]].*[[Monarchy]] - Rule by an individual who has inherited the role and expects to bequeath it to their heir.<ref>American 1134</ref>*[[Oligarchy]] - Rule by a small group of people who share similar interests or family relations.<ref>American 1225</ref>*[[Plutocracy]] - A government composed of the wealthy class.*[[Theocracy]] - Rule by a religious elite.<ref>American 1793</ref>*[[Tyranny]] - Governing by a single ruler, the following:tyrant, holding vast, if not absolute power through a state.
*Some countries have hybrid forms of Government such as modern [[Absolute monarchyIran]] - a form with its combination of government where the monarch rules unhindereddemocratic and theocratic institutions, iand constitutional monarchies such as [[The Netherlands]] combine elements of monarchy and democracy.e<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www., without any laws, constitution, or legally organized oppositioncia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html|title=CIA World Factbook -- Iran|date=2007|accessdate=2007-12-04|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}} ([https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/ir.html printable version])</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/nl.html|title=CIA - World Factbook -- Netherlands|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|date=2007|accessdate=2007-12-04}}</ref>
*[[Anarchy]] - a condition ==Origin of lawlessness or political disorder brought about by the absence of governmental authority.government==
*For many thousands of years when people were [[Authoritarianhunter-gatherer]] - a form of government s and small scale farmers, humans lived in which state authority is imposed onto many aspects of citizens' livessmall, "relatively non-hierarchical" and mostly self-sufficient communities.However, the human ability to precisely communicate abstract, learned information allowed humans to become ever more effective at agriculture,<ref name="christian networked">Christian 146-147</ref> and that allowed for ever increasing population densities.<ref name="christian 245">Christian 245</ref> David Christian explains how this resulted in states with laws and governments:
*[[Commonwealth]] - {{quote|As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between different groups increased and the social pressure rose until, in a nationstriking parallel with star formation, statenew structures suddenly appeared, or other political entity founded on law and united by together with a compact new level of complexity. Like stars, cities and states reorganize and energize the people for the common goodsmaller objects within their gravitational field.|David Christian, p. 245|<u>Maps of Time</u>}}
*[[Communist]] - a system The exact moment and place that the phenomenon of human government developed is lost in which time; however, history does record the state plans and controls formations of very early governments. About 5,000 years ago, the economy and a single first small city- often authoritarian - party holds power; state controls are imposed with states appeared.<ref name="christian 245"/> By the elimination of private ownership of property or capital while claiming third to make progress toward a higher social order in which all goods are equally shared by second millenniums BC, some of these had developed into larger governed areas: the people (i.e.[[Indus Valley Civilization]], a classless society)[[Sumer]], [[Ancient Egypt]] and the [[List of Neolithic cultures of China|Yellow River Civilization]].<ref name="christian 294"/>
*[[Confederacy]] (Confederation) - States formed as the results of a union by compact or treaty between statespositive feedback loop where ''population growth'' results in ''increased information exchange'' which results in ''innovation'' which results in ''increased resources'' which results in further population growth.<ref>Christian 253</ref><ref>Most of this sentence is in the present tense because the process is still ongoing.</ref> The role of cities in the feedback loop is important. Cities became the primary conduits for the dramatic increases in information exchange that allowed for large and densely packed populations to form, provincesand because cities concentrated knowledge, or territories, that creates they also ended up concentrating power.<ref>Christian 271</ref><ref>The concept of the city itself became a central government with limited powers; self-reinforcing cycle. "The creation of such large and dense communities ''required'' new forms of power," and since cities concentrate power, the constituent entities retain supreme authority over all matters except those delegated new (sovereign) rulers had incentives to build and expand cities to further increase their power.(Christian 271,321)</ref> "Increasing population density in farming regions provided the central governmentdemographic and physical raw materials used to construct the first cities and states, and increasing congestion provided much of the motivation for creating states."<ref name="christian 248">Christian 248</ref>
*===Fundamental purpose of government===The fundamental purpose of government is the maintenance of basic security and [[Constitutionalsocial order|public order]] - — without which individuals cannot attempt to find happiness.<ref>Schulze 81</ref> The philosopher [[Thomas Hobbes]] figured that people, as rational animals, saw submission to a government dominated by or operating under an authoritative document (constitution) that sets forth the system a sovereign as preferable to [[State of fundamental laws and principles that determines the nature, functions, and limits of that government|anarchy]].<ref name="dietz 68">Dietz 68</ref><ref name="hobbes"/>
*[People in a community ''create'' and ''submit to'' government for the purpose of establishing for themselves, safety and public order.<ref name="hobbes transfer">Dietz 65-66</ref><ref name="hobbes">[Constitutional democracy]] http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/soc- a form cont.htm#H2 Social Contract Theory]</ref><ref>Hobbes idea of the necessity of the formation of government in which is known as the sovereign power [[social contract]] theory.</ref><ref>The field of study and thought about the necessity of governments and governments' relationships with people is spelled out in a governing constitutionknown as [[political philosophy]].</ref>
*[[Constitutional monarchy]] - a system of government in which a monarch is guided by a constitution whereby his/her rights, duties, and responsibilities ===Early governments===These are spelled out in written law or by custom.examples of some of the earliest known governments:
*[[Democracy]] - a form of government in which the supreme power is retained by the people'''Ancient Egypt'''—3000 BC<ref name="christian 294">Christian 294</ref>* '''Indus Valley Civilization'''—3000 BC<ref name="christian 294"/><ref name="higham">Higham, but which is usually exercised indirectly through a system of representation and delegated authority periodically renewed."Indus Valley Civilization"</ref>* '''Sumer'''—5200 BC<ref name="christian 294"/>* '''Yellow River Civilization (China)'''—2000 BC<ref name="christian 294"/>
*[[Democratic republic]] - a state in which the supreme power rests in the body of citizens entitled to vote ===Expanded roles for officers and representatives responsible to them.government=======Military defense====
*[[Dictatorship]] - a form The fundamental purpose of government in which a ruler is to protect one from his or small clique wield absolute power (her neighbors; however, a sovereign of one country is not restricted by necessarily sovereign over the people of another country. The need for people to defend themselves against potentially ''thousands'' of non-neighbors necessitates a constitution or laws)national defense mechanism—a [[military]].
*Militaries are created to deal with the highly complex task of confronting large numbers of enemies. A farmer can defend himself from a single enemy person—or even five enemies, but he can't defend himself from twenty thousand—even with the help of his strongest and bravest family members. A far larger group would be needed, and despite the fact that most of the members of the group would not be related by family ties, they would have to learn to fight for one another ''as if'' they were all in the same family. An organization that trains people to do this is an [[Ecclesiasticalarmy]] - a government administrated by a church.
*[[Emirate]] - similar to a monarchy or sultanateWars and armies predated governments, but a government in which once governments came onto the supreme power is in scene, they proceeded to dominate the hands formation and use of an emir (armies. Governments seek to maintain monopolies on the ruler use of a Muslim state); force,<ref name="adler 80"/> and to that end, they usually suppress the emir may be an absolute overlord or a sovereign with constitutionally limited authoritydevelopment of private armies within their states.
*[[Federal]] ====Security (FederationInternal) - a form of government in which sovereign power is formally divided - usually by means of a constitution - between a central authority and a number of constituent regions (states, colonies, or provinces) so that each region retains some management of its internal affairs; differs from a confederacy in that the central government exerts influence directly upon both individuals as well as upon the regional units.====
*[[Federal republic]] - a state in which One of the powers most important role of the central government are restricted is to provide security, and in which the component parts (statesto enforce [[Law]].The instruments that are used for this purpose are [[Police]], colonies, or provinces) retain a degree of self-government; ultimate sovereign power rests with the voters who chose their governmental representativesmanagement of [[Identity documents]], etc.
*[[Islamic republic]] - a particular form of government adopted by some Muslim states; although such a state is, in theory, a theocracy, it remains a republic, but its laws are required to be compatible with the laws of Islam.
*[[Maoism]] - the theory and practice of Marxism-Leninism developed in China by [[Mao Zedong]] (Mao Tse-tung), which states that a continuous revolution is necessary if the leaders of a communist state are to keep in touch with the people.====Economic security====
*[[Marxism]] - Increasing complexities in society resulted in the politicalformations of governments, economic, and social principles espoused by 19th century economist Karl Marx; he viewed but the struggle of workers as a progression of historical forces that would proceed from a class struggle of increases in complexity didn't stop. As the proletariat (workers) exploited by capitalists (business owners)complexity and interdependency's of human communities moved forward, economies began to a socialist "dictatorship of dominate the proletariat," human experience enough for an individual's survival potential tobe affected substantially by the region's economy. Governments were originally created for the purpose of increasing people's survival potentials, finallyand in that same purpose, governments became involved in manipulating and managing regional economies.<ref>Schulze 13,58</ref> One of a classless society - Communismgreat many examples would be [[Wang Mang]]'s attempt to reform the currency in favor of the peasants and poor in ancient China.<ref>General Zhaoyun par.1</ref>
*At a bare minimum, government ensures that [[Marxism-Leninismmoney]] - an expanded form of communism developed 's value will not be undermined by Lenin from doctrines prohibiting [[counterfeiting]], but in almost all societies—including [[capitalism|capitalist]] ones—governments attempt to regulate many more aspects of Karl Marx; Lenin saw imperialism as their economies.<ref>Interestingly, during [[World War I]], the final stage "capitalist" countries of capitalism and shifted Europe implemented economic measures that would make a [[socialist]] proud.(Schulze 275)</ref> However, very often, government involvement in a national economy has more than just a purpose of stabilizing it for the focus benefit of workersthe people. Often, the members of government shape the government' struggle from developed to underdeveloped countriess economic policies for their own benefits. This will be discussed shortly.
*[[Monarchy]] - a government in which the supreme power is lodged in the hands of a monarch who reigns over a state or territory, usually for life and by hereditary right; the monarch may be either a sole absolute ruler or a sovereign - such as a king, queen, or prince - with constitutionally limited authority.====Social security====
*[[Oligarchy]] Social security is related to economic security. Throughout most of human history, parents prepared for their old age by producing enough children to ensure that some of them would survive long enough to take care of the parents in their old age.<ref name="nebel 165">Nebel 165-166</ref> In modern, relatively high- income societies, a government in which control mixed approach is exercised by taken where the government shares a small group substantial responsibility of individuals whose authority generally is based on wealth or powertaking care of the elderly.<ref name="nebel 165"/>
*[[Parliamentary democracy]] - This is not the case everywhere since there are still many countries where social security through having many children is the norm. Although social security is a political system relatively recent phenomenon, prevalent mostly in which developed countries, it deserves mention because the legislature (parliament) selects existence of social security substantially changes reproductive behavior in a society, and it has an impact on reducing the ''cycle of poverty''.<ref name="nebel 165"/> By reducing the cycle of poverty, government - creates a prime ministerself-reinforcing cycle where people see the government as friend both because of the financial support they receive late in their lives, premierbut also because of the overall reduction in national poverty due to the government's social security policies--which then adds to public support for social security.<ref>Bruce Bartlett. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/Social-Security-Then-and-Now-9867 ''Social Security Then and Now'']. <u>COMMENTARY</u>. March 2005, or chancellor along with Vol. 119, No. 3, pp. 52-56. In the cabinet ministers online<!- according - available for free for those with library cards through a library database called SIRS --> version on paragraph 13 it suggests that, During the [[Great Depression]], Roosevelt wanted to party strength as expressed in elections; suppress revolutionary tendencies by this system, tying workers to the government acquires state—hence a dual responsibility: state-run social security system. Also read the paragraphs above where it talks about populist demagogues and socialist revolutions in other countries. Tying workers to the people as well as state through social security was a politically strategic move designed to preserve the parliamentUnited States of America and its democracy.</ref>
*====Healthcare====Governments play a major role (with importance varying from a country to another) in contributing to the [[Parliamentary governmenthealth]] (Cabinet-Parliamentary government) - a government in which members of an executive branch the cititzens.This role includes funding (the cabinet and its leader - a prime minister, premier, directectly or chancellorindirectly via subsidies) are nominated to their positions by a legislature or parliament, and are directly responsible to it; this type of government can be dissolved at will by even manageing the parliament (legislature) healthcare system.It also intervene by means of a no confidence vote or elaborating [[Laws]] aiming at protecting the leader health of the cabinet may dissolve the parliament if it can no longer functioncitizens.
*[[Parliamentary monarchy]] - a state headed by a monarch who is not actively involved in policy formation or implementation (i.e., the exercise of sovereign powers by a monarch in a ceremonial capacity); true governmental leadership is carried out by a cabinet and its head - a prime minister, premier, or chancellor - who are drawn from a legislature (parliament).====Environmental security====
*Governments play a crucial role in managing environmental public goods such as the atmosphere, forests and water bodies. Governments are valuable institutions for resolving problems involving these public goods at both the local and global scales (e.g., [[Presidentialclimate change]] - a system of government where , [[deforestation]], [[overfishing]]). Although in recent decades the executive branch exists separately from economic market has been championed by certain quarters as a legislature (to which it suitable mechanism for managing environmental entities, markets have serious failures and governmental intervention and regulation and the rule of law is generally not accountable)still required for the proper, just and sustainable management of the environment.
*[[Republic]] - a representative democracy in which the people's elected deputies (representatives), not the people themselves, vote on legislation.
*[[Socialism]] - ====Education====The government plays a government central role in which participating to the means education of planning, producing, and distributing goods is controlled by the citizens. In particular it finances (directly or via subsidizing) a central government that theoretically seeks a more just and equitable distribution huge portion of property and labor; in actualitythe educational system (Schools, most socialist governments have ended up being no more than dictatorships over workers by a ruling eliteUniversities, continuous education).
*==Positive aspects of government==Governments vary greatly, and the situation of [[Sultanatecitizens]] - similar within their governments can vary greatly from person to a monarchyperson. For many people, but a government in which the supreme power is in the hands of a sultan (the head of a Muslim state); the sultan may be an absolute ruler or seen as a sovereign with constitutionally limited authoritypositive force.
*[[Theocracy]] - a form ===Upper economic class support===Governments often seek to manipulate their nations' economies — ostensibly for the nations' benefits. However, another aspect of this kind of intervention is the fact that the members of government often take opportunities to shape economic policies for their own benefits. For example, capitalists in which a Deity is recognized government might adjust policy to favor capitalism, so capitalists would see that government as the supreme civil rulera friend. In a feudal society, but the Deity's feudal lords would maintain laws are interpreted by ecclesiastical authorities (bishops, mullahsthat reinforce their powers over their lands and the people working on them, etc.); so those lords would see their government as a friend. Naturally, the exploited persons in these situations may see government subject to religious authority''very'' differently.
*[[Totalitarian]] - ===Support for democracy===Government, especially in democratic and republican forms, can be seen as the entity for a government that seeks sovereign people to subordinate establish the individual to the state by controlling not only all political and economic matters, but also the attitudes, valuestype of society, laws and beliefs of its populationnational objectives that are desired collectively.A government so created and maintained will tend to be quite friendly toward those who created and maintain it.<!-- The wording here isn't very good. I'm open to better alternatives. -->
==Action of =Religion===Governmentcan benefit or suffer from religion, as religion can benefit or suffer from government. While governments can threaten people with physical harm for observed violations of the law, religion often provides a psychological disincentive for socially destructive or anti-government actions.<ref name="dietz 151">Dietz 151n70</ref><ref name="damnation">Dietz 138</ref> Religion can also give people a sense of peace and resolve even when they are in trying circumstances, and when an individual's religious beliefs are aligned with the government's, that person will tend to see government as a friend—especially during religious controversies.
Some actions ==Negative aspects of government are direct, for example, ==Since the president may order troops positions of individuals with respect to invade a country. Or Congress may declare war on a country. Or the Supreme Court may render a decisiontheir governments can vary, reversing the order of there are people who see a lower count. In these cases, there is no question that the government is taking action and intervening in human affairs, i.e., that it is "governing"or governments as negative.
But there is no bright line of separation between government and "the things that government sponsors". If the government pays for something, such as a private corporation it charters, then the actions of that corporation are under the control of the government to a certain extent. That's why there was a backlash against the [[Boy Scouts]] getting benefits from the government, such as the use of schools, military bases, etc. "Follow the money" is the watchword of those who are tracing the effects of government policy. In sum, if you fund it, you own it. ===War===
In the most basic sense, a people of one nation will see the government of another nation as the enemy when the two nations are at war. For example, the people of [[Carthage]] saw the [[Rome|Roman]] government as the enemy during the [[Punic wars]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.boisestate.edu/WESTCIV/punicwar/|title=Tools to Administer the GovernmentThe Punic Wars|last=E.L. Skip Knox|accessdate=2007-12-14|publisher=Department of History, Boise State University}}</ref>
There is some concern about the tools to administer the United States Government and tools to regulate the government. A person manipulated by another for his own ends. When used figuatively of human agency, tool is generally used to in a comtemptuous sense. Contemptuous is manifesting or expressing contempt or disdain; scornful. Contempt is willful disobedience to or open disrespect for the rules or orders of a court or legislative body. ===Enslavement===
==External Links==*In early [http://www.aim.org/wls/category/government/ What Liberals Say - Category: Government], [[Accuracy In Mediahuman history]], the outcome of war for the defeated was often enslavement. The enslaved people would not find it easy to see the conquering government as a friend.
===Religious opposition=== There is a flip side to the phenomenon of people's ability to view a government as a friend because they share the government's religious views. People with opposing religious views will have a greater tendency to view that government as their enemy. A good example would be the condition of [[Catholicism in England]] before the [[Catholic Emancipation]]. Protestants—who were politically dominant in [[England]]—used political, economic and social means to reduce the size and strength of Catholicism in England over the 16th to 18th centuries, and as a result, Catholics in England felt that their religion was being oppressed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05445a.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: England (Since the Reformation)|accessdate=2007-12-14|date=1913|publisher=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> ===Class oppression=== Whereas capitalists in a capitalist country may tend to see that nation's government as their friend, a class-aware group of industrial workers—a [[proletariat]]—may see things very differently. If the proletariat wishes to take control of the nation's [[means of production|productive resources]], and they are blocked in their endeavors by continuing adjustments in the law made by capitalists in the government,<ref>Christian 358</ref> then the proletariat will come to see the government as their enemy—especially if the conflicts become violent. The same situation can occur among peasants. The peasants in a country, e.g. Russia during the reign of [[Catherine the Great]], may revolt against their landlords, only to find that their revolution is put down by government troops.<ref>McKay 613</ref> == Critical views and alternatives ==The relative merits of various forms of government have long been debated by philosophers, politicians and others. However, in recent times, the traditional conceptions of government and the role of government have also attracted increasing criticism from a range of sources. Some argue that the traditional conception of government, which is heavily influenced by the zero-sum perceptions of state actors and focuses on obtaining security and prosperity at a national level through primarily unilateral action, is no longer appropriate or effective in a modern world that is increasingly connected and interdependent. One such school of thought is [[human security]], which advocates for a more people-based (as opposed to state-based) conception of security, focusing on protection and empowerment of individuals. Human security calls upon governments to recognise that insecurity and instability in one region affects all and to look beyond national borders in defining their interests and formulating policies for security and development. Human security also demands that governments engage in a far greater level of cooperation and coordination with not only domestic organisations, but also a range of international actors such as foreign governments, intergovernmental organisations and non-government organisations. Whilst human security attempts to provide a more holistic and comprehensive approach to world problems, its implementation still relies to a large extent on the will and ability of governments to adopt the agenda and appropriate policies. In this sense, human security provides a critique of traditional conceptions of the role of government, but also attempts to work within the current system of state-based international relations. Of course, the unique characteristics of different countries and resources available are some constraints for governments in utilising a human security framework. == Synopsis == Government is sometimes an enemy and sometimes a friend of the citizens of this government. Government exalts some of its citizens and oppresses others. At times, governments can be aligned with its citizens religious, economic and social views, and at other times—misaligned. The role of government in the lives of people has expanded significantly during human history. Government's role has gone from providing basic security to concern in religious affairs to control of national economies and eventually to providing lifelong social security. As societies have become more complex, governments have become likewise more complex, powerful and, in some cases, intrusive. The controversies over how large, how powerful and how intrusive governments should become will likely continue for the remainder of human history. ==Notes=={{reflist|2}} == References ==* {{cite book|title=The Common Sense of Politics|last=Adler|first=Mortimer J.|date=1996|publisher=Fordham University Press, New York|isbn=0-8232-1666-7}} * {{cite book|title=American Heritage dictionary of the English language|edition=4th edition|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] Company|location=222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116|isbn=0-395-82517-2|pages=pp. 572, 770|ids=american}} * {{cite book|title=Maps of Time|last=Christian|first=David|date=2004|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-520-24476-1}} * {{cite book|title=Thomas Hobbes & Political Theory|last=Dietz|first=Mary G.|date=1990|publisher=University Press of Kansas|isbn=0-7006-0420-0}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.chinahistoryforum.com/index.php?showtopic=565|title=WANG MANG: China History Forum|last=General Zhaoyun|publisher=China History Forum|date=2004-08-04|accessdate=2007-11-02}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Government|title=LoveToKnow Classic Encyclopedia|publisher=LoveToKnow Corp.|accessdate=2007-12-04|date=1911}} * {{cite book|title=A History of World Societies|last=McKay|first=John P.|coauthors=Bennett D. Hill, John Buckler|date=1996|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] Company|isbn=0-395-75379-1}} * {{cite web|url=http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=government|title=WordNet Search 3.0|accessdate=2007-11-10|work=WordNet a lexical database for the English language|publisher=Princeton University/Cognitive Science Laboratory /221 Nassau St./ Princeton, NJ 08542|first=George A.|last=Miller|coauthors=Christiane Fellbaum, and Randee Tengi, and Pamela Wakefield, and Rajesh Poddar, and Helen Langone, and Benjamin Haskell|date=2006|id=wordnet:earth science}} * {{cite book|title=Environmental Science (7th ed.)|last=Nebel|first=Bernard J.|coauthors=Richard T. Wright|publisher=Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458|date=2007|isbn=0-13-083134-4}} * {{cite book|title=States, Nations and Nationalism|last=Schulze|first=Hagen|date=1994|publisher=Blackwell Publishers Inc, 350 Main Street, Malden, Massachusetts 02148, USA}} == Additional references ==<!-- Some of these entries are links to articles inonline databases that some people may not have access to; beneath the online database reference is a list of references that that article uses. Please do not remove this explanation. -->*{{cite web|author=Higham, Charles F. W.|title=Indus Valley Civilization|work=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations|location=New York|publisher=Facts On File, Inc.|year=2004|work=Ancient and Medieval History Online|publisher=Facts On File, Inc.|url=http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp?ItemID=WE49&iPin=EAAC0309&SingleRecord=True|accessdate=2007-12-07}}<!-- name: higham indus -->:*Kenoyer, J. M. ''Ancient Cities of the Indus Civilization''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998:*[[Gregory Possehl|Possehl, Gregory L.]] ''Harappan Civilization: A Recent Perspective''. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993:*''Indus Age: The Writing System''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996:*“Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanisation,” ''Annual Review of Anthropology'' 19 (1990): 261–282. *{{cite web|author=Higham, Charles F. W.|title=History of ancient and medieval Asia|location=New York|publisher=Facts On File, Inc.|year=2004|work=Ancient and Medieval History Online|url=http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp?ItemID=WE49&iPin=EAAC0871&SingleRecord=True|accessdate=2007-12-07}}<!-- name: higham history --> ==See also=====Governmental roles===<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">* [[Governor]]* [[Head of State]]* [[Leadership]]* [[Premier]]* [[Monarch]]* [[Favourite]]* [[Statesman]]* [[Citizen]]* [[President]]* [[Head of Government]]* [[Prime Minister]]* [[King]]* [[Sovereignty|Sovereign]]* [[Constitutional monarchy|Constitutional monarch]]* [[Figurehead]]* [[Shah]]* [[Emir]]* [[Sultan]]* [[Czar]]* [[Caesar (title)]]* [[House of Commons]]* [[Senators]]</div> === Relevant lists ==={{wikiquote}}* [[List of forms of government]] === Related topics ===* [[Governance]]* [[Human Security]]* [[Official statistics]] [[Category:politicsGovernment| ]] [[categoryam:መንግሥት]][[ar:حكومة]][[arc:ܡܕܒܪܢܘܬܐ]][[bn:সরকার]][[zh-min-nan:Chèng-hú]][[be-x-old:Урад]][[bs:Vlada]][[bg:Правителство]][[ca:Govern]][[cs:Vláda]][[ny:Boma]][[cy:Llywodraeth]][[da:Regering]][[de:Regierung]][[el:Κυβέρνηση]][[es:Gobierno]][[eo:Registaro]][[fa:حکومت]][[fr:Gouvernement]][[ga:Rialtas]][[gl:Goberno]][[ko:정부]][[hi:सरकार]][[hr:Vlada]][[id:Pemerintah]][[is:Ríkisstjórn]][[it:Governo]][[he:ממשלה]][[lv:Valdība]][[lo:ລັດຖະບານ]][[lb:Regierung]][[lt:Vyriausybė]][[hu:Kormány (állami szerv)]][[mi:Kāwanatanga]][[ms:Kerajaan]][[nl:Regering]][[ja:政府]][[no:Styresmakt]][[nn:Styresmakt]][[pl:Rada Ministrów]][[pt:Rząd (ujednoznacznienie)]][[ro:Guvern]][[ru:Правительство]][[scn:Cuvernu]][[simple:government]][[sl:Vladavina]][[sr:Влада]][[fi:Hallinto]][[sv:Regering]][[tl:Pamahalaan]][[ta:அரசு]][[th:รัฐบาล]][[tr:Hükûmet]][[vi:Chính phủ]][[uk:Уряд]][[yi:רעגירונג]][[yo:Ìjọba]][[zh:政府]]
