Changes

When King Charles I was forced by a shortage of funds to recall Parliament in 1640, Cromwell was returned to this Parliament as the M.P. for Cambridge. Known as the ''Short Parliament'', Charles again dissolved the house after only 3 weeks.  

When King Charles I was forced by a shortage of funds to recall Parliament in 1640, Cromwell was returned to this Parliament as the M.P. for Cambridge. Known as the ''Short Parliament'', Charles again dissolved the house after only 3 weeks.  

Cromwell became a local leader in the rapidly the expanding Puritan movement, which demanded a radical reform of the Church of England, and was opposed to the High Church tendencies favored by [[William Laud]], who became [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] in 1633. In 1640, Comwell was returned to Parliament as member for Cambridge, the poorest man in the House of Commons by some distance; he wore a coarse suit, and plain linen shirt, its collar spotted with blood. Poor in dress but rich in speech, he was a man with a fearless and tactless tongue who denounced the tyranny of the bishops, and the pervasive idolatry of the established Church. He served on eighteen high-profile committees, especially those concerned with investigating religious innovation and abuse of ecclesiastical power. However, he was shunned by those leading the opposition to Charles I's government, but when it came for war he was packed off to raise troops in his home area, which he did with remarkable success.  

Cromwell became a local leader in the rapidly the expanding Puritan movement, which demanded a radical reform of the Church of England, and was opposed to the High Church tendencies favored by [[William Laud]], who became [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] in 1633. In 1640, Cromwell was returned to Parliament as member for Cambridge, the poorest man in the House of Commons by some distance; he wore a coarse suit, and plain linen shirt, its collar spotted with blood. Poor in dress but rich in speech, he was a man with a fearless and tactless tongue who denounced the tyranny of the bishops, and the pervasive idolatry of the established Church. He served on eighteen high-profile committees, especially those concerned with investigating religious innovation and abuse of ecclesiastical power. However, he was shunned by those leading the opposition to Charles I's government, but when it came for war he was packed off to raise troops in his home area, which he did with remarkable success.  

==Causes of the Civil War (1630-1642)==

==Causes of the Civil War (1630-1642)==

In 1630-42, when he governed without calling a parliament, King Charles I multiplied his enemies by imposing irritating financial exactions upon various classes of the community, using prerogative powers exercised by the king in centuries past. He demanded "ship money" from the towns, fined country gentlemen (including Cromwell) for refusing to accept knighthood, raised "forced loans," and increased customs duties. He did all this because he had no right to levy fresh taxes without the consent of Parliament; indeed, his broad aim was to secure the financial independence of the monarchy, and to fasten uniformity upon the Church. Thus the king antagonized the Puritan reformers as well as many of the country gentry and townspeople. In 1638 he became involved in a war against his Scottish subjects (he was hereditary king of Scotland as well as of England) when he tried to force upon them a prayer book similar to that in use in the English Church. They rebelled, and he was compelled to call a parliament at Westminster to ask for money to pursue the war. The accumulation of grievances against the king over eleven years made the leaders of the House of Commons aggressive and uncooperative. Cromwell at once showed himself to be a staunch Puritan, and as such gave steady support to the critics of church and government.

In 1630-42, when he governed without calling a parliament, King Charles I multiplied his enemies by imposing irritating financial exactions upon various classes of the community, using prerogative powers exercised by the king in centuries past. He demanded "ship money" from the towns, fined country gentlemen (including Cromwell) for refusing to accept knighthood, raised "forced loans," and increased customs duties. He did all this because he had no right to levy fresh taxes without the consent of Parliament; indeed, his broad aim was to secure the financial independence of the monarchy, and to fasten uniformity upon the Church. Thus the king antagonized the Puritan reformers as well as many of the country gentry and townspeople. In 1638 he became involved in a war against his Scottish subjects (he was hereditary king of Scotland as well as of England) when he tried to force upon them a prayer book similar to that in use in the English Church. They rebelled, and he was compelled to call a parliament at Westminster to ask for money to pursue the war. The accumulation of grievances against the king over eleven years made the leaders of the House of Commons aggressive and uncooperative. Cromwell at once showed himself to be a staunch Puritan, and as such gave steady support to the critics of church and government.

At the beginning of the Civil War, Parliament relied on soldiers recruited by large landowners who supported their cause. In February 1645, Parliament decided to form a new army of professional soldiers. This army of 22,000 men became known as the [[New Model Army]] and its commander-in-chief was General [[Thomas Fairfax]]. Cromwell was placed in charge of its cavalry.

At the beginning of the Civil War, Parliament relied on soldiers recruited by large landowners who supported their cause. In February 1645, Parliament decided to form a new army of professional soldiers. This army of 22,000 men became known as the [[New Model Army]] and its commander-in-chief was General [[Thomas Fairfax]]. Cromwell was placed in charge of its cavalry.

Members of the New Model Army received proper military training and by the time they went into battle they were very well-disciplined. Previously, people only became officers because they came from powerful and wealthy families. In the New Model Army men were promoted when they showed themselves to be good soldiers. For the first time it became possible for plain men to become army officers. Cromwell thought it was very important that soldiers in the New Model Army believed strongly in what they were fighting for. Where possible he recruited men who, like him, held strong Puritan views and the New Model Army always went into battle singing [[psalm]]s, convinced that God was on their side.

Members of the New Model Army received proper military training and by the time they went into battle they were very well-disciplined. Previously, people only became officers because they came from powerful and wealthy families. In the New Model Army men were promoted when they showed themselves to be good soldiers. For the first time it became possible for plain men to become army officers. Cromwell thought it was very important that soldiers in the New Model Army believed strongly in what they were fighting for. Where possible he recruited men who, like him, held strong Puritan views and the New Model Army always went into battle singing psalms, convinced that God was on their side.

One strong faction among the regiments of the Army were known loosely as the "''Levellers''" "for they intend to sett all things straight, and rayse a parity and community in the kingdom".[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Levellers] who subscribed to a belief in the "natural rights" of men that had been violated by the king's side. These natural rights, they asserted, came from the law of God expressed in the [[Bible]].  

One strong faction among the regiments of the Army were known loosely as the "''Levellers''" "for they intend to sett all things straight, and rayse a parity and community in the kingdom".<ref> See [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Levellers]</ref> who subscribed to a belief in the "natural rights" of men that had been violated by the king's side. These natural rights, they asserted, came from the law of God expressed in the Bible.  

==General Cromwell==

==General Cromwell==

Puritans immediately recognized and appreciated his firm, fair and aggressive leadership. In a military career that only lasted a decade, he fought in more than thirty battles, and took part in more than forty sieges, without ever tasting defeat. The extraordinary self-discipline of his cavalry charges proved decisive in several of the greatest battles of the war, and earned Cromwell himself, and then his men, the title "Ironsides."  He demanded that promotions and commands be given not to the well-born (who wore long flowing hair) but to the godly (who cut their hair short and were called "roundheads").  "I had rather have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what he fights for, and loves what he knows, than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else."<ref> Letter #16, Sept. 11, 1638</ref> The two Houses moved to reorganize their armies in the winter of 1644-45, and created a new major assault force, the New Model Army. Cromwell was, to the joy of the radicals, and the dismay of the more cautious Parliamentarians, given command of the cavalry, effectively the number two position in the Army.  

Puritans immediately recognized and appreciated his firm, fair and aggressive leadership. In a military career that only lasted a decade, he fought in more than thirty battles, and took part in more than forty sieges, without ever tasting defeat. The extraordinary self-discipline of his cavalry charges proved decisive in several of the greatest battles of the war, and earned Cromwell himself, and then his men, the title "Ironsides."  He demanded that promotions and commands be given not to the well-born (who wore long flowing hair) but to the godly (who cut their hair short and were called '''"roundheads"''').  "I had rather have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what he fights for, and loves what he knows, than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else."<ref> Letter #16, Sept. 11, 1638</ref> The two Houses moved to reorganize their armies in the winter of 1644-45, and created a new major assault force, the New Model Army. Cromwell was, to the joy of the radicals, and the dismay of the more cautious Parliamentarians, given command of the cavalry, effectively the number two position in the Army.  

===Battles of Marston Moor and Naseby===

===Battles of Marston Moor and Naseby===

Oliver Cromwell, now a lieutenant general, fought alongside the Scots and a northern army under Lord Fairfax and his son, Sir Thomas, at the [[Battle of Marston Moor]] in Yorkshire on July 2, 1644, where the king's army, led by Prince Rupert, was outnumbered and defeated. Next year, fighting without the Scots,

Oliver Cromwell, now a lieutenant general, fought alongside the Scots and a northern army under Lord Fairfax and his son, Sir Thomas, at the Battle of Marston Moor in Yorkshire on July 2, 1644, where the king's army, led by Prince Rupert, was outnumbered and defeated.  

The New Model Army took part in its first major battle just outside the village of [[Naseby]] in [[Northamptonshire]] on 14 June 1645. The battle began when Prince Rupert led a charge against the left wing of the parliamentary cavalry which scattered and Rupert's men then gave chase. While this was going on Cromwell launched an attack on the left wing of the royalist cavalry. This was also successful and the royalists that survived the initial charge fled from the battlefield. Cromwell then ordered his cavalry to attack the now unprotected flanks of the infantry. Charles I was waiting with 1,200 men in reserve, but instead of ordering them forward to help his infantry he decided to retreat. Without support from the cavalry, the royalist infantry realised their task was impossible and surrendered. By the time Prince Rupert's cavalry returned to the battlefield the fighting had ended and his horses were exhausted after their long chase and not in a fit state to take on Cromwell's cavalry. The prince had no option but to ride off in search of the fleeing Charles I.  The battle of Naseby was disastrous for the king, with 1,000 of his men killed, and another 4,500 of his most experienced men taken prisoner. The Parliamentary forces were also able to capture the Royalist baggage train that contained the king's complete stock of guns and ammunition. After Naseby, Charles was never able to raise another army strong enough to defeat the parliamentary army in a major battle.

Next year, fighting without the Scots, the New Model Army took part in its first major battle just outside the village of Naseby in Northamptonshire on 14 June 1645. The battle began when Prince Rupert led a charge against the left wing of the parliamentary cavalry which scattered and Rupert's men then gave chase. While this was going on Cromwell launched an attack on the left wing of the royalist cavalry. This was also successful and the royalists that survived the initial charge fled from the battlefield. Cromwell then ordered his cavalry to attack the now unprotected flanks of the infantry. Charles I was waiting with 1,200 men in reserve, but instead of ordering them forward to help his infantry he decided to retreat. Without support from the cavalry, the royalist infantry realised their task was impossible and surrendered. By the time Prince Rupert's cavalry returned to the battlefield the fighting had ended and his horses were exhausted after their long chase and not in a fit state to take on Cromwell's cavalry. The prince had no option but to ride off in search of the fleeing Charles I.  The battle of Naseby was disastrous for the king, with 1,000 of his men killed, and another 4,500 of his most experienced men taken prisoner. The Parliamentary forces were also able to capture the Royalist baggage train that contained the king's complete stock of guns and ammunition. After Naseby, Charles was never able to raise another army strong enough to defeat the parliamentary army in a major battle.

Cromwell served under Sir Thomas Fairfax, the new Parliamentarian commander in chief. In both these battles Cromwell distinguished himself by his courage, enterprise, and leadership. Above all, his hold on eastern England had contributed to the reversal of the fortunes of war. When King Charles allowed his stronghold of Oxford to capitulate in June 1646, and himself fled to seek the mercy of the Scottish army, Cromwell had gained a reputation as the outstanding general of the first civil war. Although he had publicly criticized some of the aristocratic parliamentary commanders for what he considered lethargy and incompetence, he had been a loyal lieutenant to his superior, Sir Thomas Fairfax.

Cromwell served under Sir Thomas Fairfax, the new Parliamentarian commander in chief. In both these battles Cromwell distinguished himself by his courage, enterprise, and leadership. Above all, his hold on eastern England had contributed to the reversal of the fortunes of war. When King Charles allowed his stronghold of Oxford to capitulate in June 1646, and himself fled to seek the mercy of the Scottish army, Cromwell had gained a reputation as the outstanding general of the first civil war. Although he had publicly criticized some of the aristocratic parliamentary commanders for what he considered lethargy and incompetence, he had been a loyal lieutenant to his superior, Sir Thomas Fairfax.

==Second English Civil War==

==Second English Civil War==

In January 1647, Charles I fled to Scotland where he was captured and handed over to the New Model Army. Charles was imprisoned in [[Hampton Court]], but in November 1647 he escaped and managed to rally support to raise another army. This time he was able to persuade the Scots to fight on his side. However, in August 1648 Cromwell's New Model Army defeated the Scots army (the "[[Engagers]]") at [[Preston]], where Cromwell took sole command for the first time over an army of 9,000, which won a brilliant victory against the 18,000 strong Scots force.  Once again Charles was taken prisoner.  

In January 1647, Charles I fled to Scotland where he was captured and handed over to the New Model Army. Charles was imprisoned in [[Hampton Court]], but in November 1647 he escaped and managed to rally support to raise another army. This time he was able to persuade the Scots to fight on his side. However, in August 1648 Cromwell's New Model Army defeated the Scots army (the "Engagers") at Preston, where Cromwell took sole command for the first time over an army of 9,000, which won a brilliant victory against the 18,000 strong Scots force.  Once again King Charles was taken prisoner.

 

==Parliament versus Army: Second Civil War (1648)==

==Parliament versus Army: Second Civil War (1648)==

In 1651 Cromwell's government adopted a policy of destroying the power of those Irish Catholics who did not become Protestants; they were seen as dangerous barbarians and potential allies of the royalists. All Irish landholdings (except in barren Connacht) were confiscated, and most of the populace was driven into the wilds of Connacht to die of starvation and pestilence. The proportion of land owned by Catholics fell from 59% in 1641 to 20% two decades later.  The goal was to resettle the island with godly Protestants, who were given the best lands. As a result, the Irish Catholics have hated Cromwell with a passion for centuries.

In 1651 Cromwell's government adopted a policy of destroying the power of those Irish Catholics who did not become Protestants; they were seen as dangerous barbarians and potential allies of the royalists. All Irish landholdings (except in barren Connacht) were confiscated, and most of the populace was driven into the wilds of Connacht to die of starvation and pestilence. The proportion of land owned by Catholics fell from 59% in 1641 to 20% two decades later.  The goal was to resettle the island with godly Protestants, who were given the best lands. As a result, the Irish Catholics have hated Cromwell with a passion for centuries.

In May 1650 Cromwell learned that [[Charles II]] had landed in Scotland and been proclaimed king by the Scots Covenanter regime so he returned to England to put down this latest threat, leaving Henry Ireton and Edmund Ludlow in command of the English forces in ireland. The last Catholic held town, [[Galway]], surrendered in April 1652 and the last Irish troops surrendered in April 1653.

In May 1650 Cromwell learned that [[Charles II]] had landed in Scotland and been proclaimed king by the Scots Covenanter regime so he returned to England to put down this latest threat, leaving Henry Ireton and Edmund Ludlow in command of the English forces in Ireland. The last Catholic held town, [[Galway]], surrendered in April 1652 and the last Irish troops surrendered in April 1653.

==Conquest of Scotland==

==Conquest of Scotland==

The English republic was threatened because Scotland's Presbyterian [[Covenanters]] had come to terms with Charles I's eldest son, [[Charles II]]. General Fairfax resigned rather than invade Scotland, and Cromwell took his place as commander in chief. He crossed the Scottish border on July 22, 1650, but at first made little headway against the defensive strategy of the Scottish commander. As in Ireland his campaign was supported by English sea power, the importance of which he appreciated. Although cut off from his English base, Cromwell won a great victory at Dunbar (30 miles [48 km] east of Edinburgh) on Sept. 3, 1650. Cromwell destroyed the main Covenanter army at the battle of Dunbar on September 3 1650. Leaving 4,000 Scottish soldiers dead and 10,000 taken prisoner, he quickly moved to capture the Scottish capital of Edinburgh.  

The English republic was threatened because Scotland's Presbyterian [[Covenanters]] had come to terms with Charles I's eldest son, [[Charles II]]. General Fairfax resigned rather than invade Scotland, and Cromwell took his place as commander in chief. He crossed the Scottish border on July 22, 1650, but at first made little headway against the defensive strategy of the Scottish commander. As in Ireland his campaign was supported by English sea power, the importance of which he appreciated. Although cut off from his English base, Cromwell won a great victory at Dunbar (30 miles [48 km] east of Edinburgh) on Sept. 3, 1650. Cromwell destroyed the main Covenanter army at the battle of Dunbar on September 3 1650. Leaving 4,000 Scottish soldiers dead and 10,000 taken prisoner, he quickly moved to capture the Scottish capital of Edinburgh.  

During the winter 1650-51 Comwell was taken ill and the army bogged down. But the following summer he outmaneuvered the Scots who, rather than allow themselves to have their lines of communication cut, followed the young King Charles II into England. Charles II and the remaining Covenanters was making a final desperate bid to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was still in Scotland. Cromwell rapidly pursued them south, however, and caught them at Worcester in September. In the ensuing battle Cromwell's forces wiped out the last major Scottish royalist army. Scotland was henceforward ruled from England under military occupation.  Cromwell was welcomed as a hero on his return to London.

During the winter 1650-51 Cromwell was taken ill and the army bogged down. But the following summer he outmaneuvered the Scots who, rather than allow themselves to have their lines of communication cut, followed the young King Charles II into England. Charles II and the remaining Covenanters was making a final desperate bid to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was still in Scotland. Cromwell rapidly pursued them south, however, and caught them at Worcester in September. In the ensuing battle Cromwell's forces wiped out the last major Scottish royalist army. Scotland was henceforward ruled from England under military occupation.  Cromwell was welcomed as a hero on his return to London.

==Creating the Protectorate==

==Creating the Protectorate==

During the next two years the quarrel between Parliament and army, which had begun in 1647, was revived. The army was now radically inclined, seeking reform in Church and State. Cromwell became the spokesman of the army's point of view, although once again he tried first to act as conciliator between the two sides. The soldiers asked that the remnant of the original "Long Parliament" of 1640, now known as "the Rump," should be dissolved and a fresh reformist one-chamber Parliament be elected. Other sections of the community had tired of the long naval war then in progress against the Dutch Republic (1652-1654), in which Cromwell's army had no part, and indeed resented as a fratricidal war against fellow Protestants.  

During the next two years the quarrel between Parliament and army, which had begun in 1647, was revived. The army was now radically inclined, seeking reform in Church and State. Cromwell became the spokesman of the army's point of view, although once again he tried first to act as conciliator between the two sides. The soldiers asked that the remnant of the original "Long Parliament" of 1640, now known as "the Rump," should be dissolved and a fresh reformist one-chamber Parliament be elected. Other sections of the community had tired of the long naval war then in progress against the Dutch Republic (1652-1654), in which Cromwell's army had no part, and indeed resented as a fratricidal war against fellow Protestants.  

Former members of the Levellers, an extreme anti-elitist group, grew disillusioned with the dictatorial policies of Cromwell. In 1655 Edward Sexby, John Wildman and Richard Overton were involved in fomenting a plot to overthrow the government, but the conspiracy was discovered and the plotters fled to the [[Netherlands]]. In May 1657 Edward Sexby published (under the pseudonym William Allen) ''Killing No Murder'', a political pamphlet that argued the justification of an assassination of Cromwell. The following month he arrived in England to carry out the assassination, but was arrested and imprisoned.

Former members of the Levellers, an extreme anti-elitist group, grew disillusioned with the dictatorial policies of Cromwell. In 1655 Edward Sexby, John Wildman and Richard Overton were involved in fomenting a plot to overthrow the government, but the conspiracy was discovered and the plotters fled to the [[Netherlands]]. In May 1657 Edward Sexby published (under the pseudonym William Allen) ''Killing No Murder'', a political pamphlet that argued the justification of an assassination of Cromwell. The following month he arrived in England to carry out the assassination, but was arrested and imprisoned.

===Death and succession===

===Death and succession===

Cromwell's strong personality and the backing of the army held the Commonmwealth together and preserved internal peace; he had to contend with republican plotters as well as discontented Royalists and foreign enemies.  

Cromwell's strong personality and the backing of the army held the Commonwealth together and preserved internal peace; he had to contend with republican plotters as well as discontented Royalists and foreign enemies.  

By 1658 the government's debt stood at £1.5 million, largely because of the heavy cost of the armed forces, which the government proved unable to reduce in size. The regime's military commitments were taking it to the verge of bankruptcy, just when it seemed to be devising a feasible civilian basis for its rule.  

By 1658 the government's debt stood at £1.5 million, largely because of the heavy cost of the armed forces, which the government proved unable to reduce in size. The regime's military commitments were taking it to the verge of bankruptcy, just when it seemed to be devising a feasible civilian basis for its rule.  

Blair Warden, a leading historian, reports, "From his century to ours, Oliver Cromwell has been the most controversial figure of English history."<ref>Blair Warden, "The English Reputations of Oliver Cromwell, 1660-1900"  in William Lamont, ed. [http://books.google.com/books?id=fi4SmvdoUfoC&pg=PA35&dq=%22From+his+century+to+ours,+Oliver+Cromwell%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&sig=Zjm1_A4NGCzCyrl8RpbIB-47Dug  ''Historical Controversies And Historians'' (1998) p. 35]</ref> First, Cromwell is well known and highly thought of; recent BBC polls show the public considers him one of the ten greatest Britons. Second, his importance and influence is beyond doubt, as is his stature as an outstanding soldier and diplomat. The main facts of his career are not in dispute, only the moral evaluation of those facts.<ref>Compare the controversies over King [[Richard III]], who was a minor player as king for less than two years and whose facts are in dispute.</ref> Third, the range and intensity of opinion is extreme, from those who laud him as a champion of liberty and republicanism who uplifted Britain's stature in the world, to those who to this date hate him as a regicide and murderer of so many Irish Catholics. The debate ranges from commoners to kings, and historians have been deeply involved. In the 1930s and 1940s most scholars saw him as a dangerous dictator, along the lines of Mussolini, Stalin and Hitler. In recent decades nearly all the scholars have been favorable.

Blair Warden, a leading historian, reports, "From his century to ours, Oliver Cromwell has been the most controversial figure of English history."<ref>Blair Warden, "The English Reputations of Oliver Cromwell, 1660-1900"  in William Lamont, ed. [http://books.google.com/books?id=fi4SmvdoUfoC&pg=PA35&dq=%22From+his+century+to+ours,+Oliver+Cromwell%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&sig=Zjm1_A4NGCzCyrl8RpbIB-47Dug  ''Historical Controversies And Historians'' (1998) p. 35]</ref> First, Cromwell is well known and highly thought of; recent BBC polls show the public considers him one of the ten greatest Britons. Second, his importance and influence is beyond doubt, as is his stature as an outstanding soldier and diplomat. The main facts of his career are not in dispute, only the moral evaluation of those facts.<ref>Compare the controversies over King [[Richard III]], who was a minor player as king for less than two years and whose facts are in dispute.</ref> Third, the range and intensity of opinion is extreme, from those who laud him as a champion of liberty and republicanism who uplifted Britain's stature in the world, to those who to this date hate him as a regicide and murderer of so many Irish Catholics. The debate ranges from commoners to kings, and historians have been deeply involved. In the 1930s and 1940s most scholars saw him as a dangerous dictator, along the lines of Mussolini, Stalin and Hitler. In recent decades nearly all the scholars have been favorable.

During his lifetime, some tracts painted him as a hypocrite motivated by power — for example, ''The Machiavilian Cromwell'' and ''The Juglers Discovered'', both part of an attack on Cromwell by the [[Levellers]] after 1647, present him as a Machiavellian figure.  After his death and public disgrace there were many denunciations and a few positive portrayals, such as John Spittlehouse's ''A Warning Piece Discharged'' which compared him to Moses, rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars.<ref>John Morrill,  "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, (1990) pp. 263–4, 271-2 </ref> The great roayalist historian Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, in his ''History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England'' (1667) declared that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man". Clarendon argued that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped not only by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. The aristocracy was especially hostile to Cromwell, in large part because of his strong appeal to the common yeoman.

During his lifetime, some tracts painted him as a hypocrite motivated by power — for example, ''The Machiavilian Cromwell'' and ''The Juglers Discovered'', both part of an attack on Cromwell by the [[Levellers]] after 1647, present him as a Machiavellian figure.  After his death and public disgrace there were many denunciations and a few positive portrayals, such as John Spittlehouse's ''A Warning Piece Discharged'' which compared him to Moses, rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars.<ref>John Morrill,  "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, (1990) pp. 263–4, 271-2 </ref> The great royalist historian Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, in his ''History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England'' (1667) declared that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man". Clarendon argued that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped not only by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. The aristocracy was especially hostile to Cromwell, in large part because of his strong appeal to the common yeoman.

      

      

In the early 18th century, Cromwell’s image began to be adopted and reshaped by the [[Whig Party|Whigs]], an out-party opposing the Tories around the Hanoverian kings. They stressed Cromwell as [[Republicanism|republican]], a theme often adopted by American historians. <ref>Blai Worden, ''Roundhead Reputations: The English Civil Wars and the Passions of Posterity'' (2001). pp.53–59.</ref>

In the early 18th century, Cromwell’s image began to be adopted and reshaped by the [[Whig Party|Whigs]], an out-party opposing the Tories around the Hanoverian kings. They stressed Cromwell as [[Republicanism|republican]], a theme often adopted by American historians. <ref>Blair Worden, ''Roundhead Reputations: The English Civil Wars and the Passions of Posterity'' (2001). pp.53–59.</ref>

      

      

During the early 19th century, Cromwell's image was glorified by Romantic artists and poets. French author Victor Hugo's 1827 play ''Cromwell'' was representative of the French romantic movement, showing Cromwell as a ruthless yet dynamic Romantic hero. The major breakthrough came at the hands of a leading Romantic historian, [[Thomas Carlyle]] who in the 1840s saw Cromwell as the hero in a battle between good and evil. Carlyle used Cromwell as a model for restoring morality to a Victorian era that otherwise was prone to timidity, meaningless rhetoric, and moral compromise. The growth of Nonconformity in the nineteenth century encouraged an appreciation of Cromwell's Puritanism.

During the early 19th century, Cromwell's image was glorified by Romantic artists and poets. French author Victor Hugo's 1827 play ''Cromwell'' was representative of the French romantic movement, showing Cromwell as a ruthless yet dynamic Romantic hero. The major breakthrough came at the hands of a leading Romantic historian, [[Thomas Carlyle]] who in the 1840s saw Cromwell as the hero in a battle between good and evil. Carlyle used Cromwell as a model for restoring morality to a Victorian era that otherwise was prone to timidity, meaningless rhetoric, and moral compromise. The growth of Nonconformity in the nineteenth century encouraged an appreciation of Cromwell's Puritanism.

Recent scholars have emphasized Cromwell’s religiosity and downplayed his authoritarian style. Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement, by winning back the confidence of the political nation as a whole. Woolrych argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed not so much from its military origins or the participation of army officers in civil government, as from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God, and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief purpose of government.<ref>Austin Woolrych, "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in ''History'' (1990) 75(244): 207-231</ref>     

Recent scholars have emphasized Cromwell’s religiosity and downplayed his authoritarian style. Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement, by winning back the confidence of the political nation as a whole. Woolrych argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed not so much from its military origins or the participation of army officers in civil government, as from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God, and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief purpose of government.<ref>Austin Woolrych, "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in ''History'' (1990) 75(244): 207-231</ref>     

      

      

Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden and J.C. Davis have explored Cromwell's religious rhetoricm, showing his speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation.<ref>Morrill "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,''(2004). [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6765]; Blair Worden, "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan". In Beales, D. and Best, G., ''History, Society and the Churches'' (1985); J.C. Davis, "Cromwell’s religion", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990). </ref>

Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden and J.C. Davis have explored Cromwell's religious rhetoric, showing his speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation.<ref>Morrill "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,''(2004). [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6765]; Blair Worden, "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan". In Beales, D. and Best, G., ''History, Society and the Churches'' (1985); J.C. Davis, "Cromwell’s religion", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990). </ref>

 

===Biographies===

===Biographies===

* Ashley, Maurice. ''The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell'' (1958). 382pp, a standard scholarly biography [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3806780 online edition]  

* Ashley, Maurice. ''The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell'' (1958). 382pp, a standard scholarly biography [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3806780 online edition]  

* Hirst, Derek. "The Lord Protector, 1653-8", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990), ISBN 0-582-01675-4

* Hirst, Derek. "The Lord Protector, 1653-8", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990), ISBN 0-582-01675-4

* Mason, James and Angela Leonard. ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1998), ISBN 0-582-29734-6. 128pp succinct and effective

* Mason, James and Angela Leonard. ''Oliver Cromwell'' (1998), ISBN 0-582-29734-6. 128pp succinct and effective

* Morrill, John. "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,'' (2004) [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6765 online to subscribers]

* Morrill, John. "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,'' (2004) [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6765 online to subscribers], the best place to start

* Morrill, John. "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990), ISBN 0-582-01675-4.

* Morrill, John. "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), ''Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution'' (1990), ISBN 0-582-01675-4.

* Paul, Robert. ''The Lord Protector: Religion And Politics In The Life of Oliver Cromwell''. (1958) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3672431 online edition]  

* Paul, Robert. ''The Lord Protector: Religion And Politics In The Life of Oliver Cromwell''. (1958) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3672431 online edition]  

===Primary sources===

===Primary sources===

* Abbott, W.C., ed.  ''Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,'' 4 vols. (1937-47).The largest reference for Cromwell's own words; however Morrill warns this edition contains far too many errors of transcription and judgment [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98993729 online edition].

* Abbott, W.C., ed.  ''Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,'' 4 vols. (1937-47).The largest reference for Cromwell's own words [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98993729 online edition].

** Morrill, John. "Textualizing and Contextualizing Cromwell", in ''Historical Journal'' 1990 33(3): pp.629-639. ISSN 0018-246X . [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2639734 in Jstor] Examines the Carlyle and Abbott editions.

** Morrill, John. "Textualizing and Contextualizing Cromwell", in ''Historical Journal'' 1990 33(3): pp.629-639. ISSN 0018-246X . [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2639734 in Jstor] Examines the Carlyle and Abbott editions.

* Carlyle, Thomas, ed. ''Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations''. (1904 edition), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98993729 online edition]

* Carlyle, Thomas, ed. ''Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations''. (1904 edition), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98993729 online edition]