Changes

President Eisenhower developed a secret or "covert" plan to free Cuba from its communist dictatorship, which Kennedy continued after becoming president in 1961.  It consisted of having about a thousand "Cuban exiles" who had been forced to leave Cuba form an army to invade and overthrow Castro.  But President Kennedy backed away from the plan at the last minute, and apparently someone in the United States government leaked word of the planned invasion to Castro.  He waited with a much bigger force and captured or killed the Cuban exiles when they invaded at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba in 1961.  America was humiliated by this tragedy.

President Eisenhower developed a secret or "covert" plan to free Cuba from its communist dictatorship, which Kennedy continued after becoming president in 1961.  It consisted of having about a thousand "Cuban exiles" who had been forced to leave Cuba form an army to invade and overthrow Castro.  But President Kennedy backed away from the plan at the last minute, and apparently someone in the United States government leaked word of the planned invasion to Castro.  He waited with a much bigger force and captured or killed the Cuban exiles when they invaded at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba in 1961.  America was humiliated by this tragedy.

President Kennedy was himself assassinated two years later in 1963 by a communist sympathizer, Lee Harvey Oswald, who had once tried to become a citizen of the Soviet Union and who supported Castro.  An official commission headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren later concluded that Oswald acted alone, but unanswered questions remain concerning the assassination of President Kennedy.  An independent poll conducted in 2003 (by ABC) showed that 68% of Americans believed that the government covered up the real truth about this assassination and that Oswald did not act alone.

President Kennedy was himself assassinated two years later in 1963 in Dallas by a communist sympathizer, Lee Harvey Oswald, who had once tried to become a citizen of the Soviet Union and who supported Castro.  An official commission headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren later concluded that Oswald acted alone, but unanswered questions remain concerning the assassination of President Kennedy.  An independent poll conducted in 2003 (by ABC) showed that 68% of Americans believed that the government covered up the real truth about this assassination and that Oswald did not act alone.

Spying was a central aspect of the Cold War.  The United States sent secret spy planes to fly over the Soviet Union to take pictures of activities there from high in the sky.  But in 1960, while Eisenhower was still president, one of these "U-2" (not the rock group!) planes crashed and an American pilot was captured.  This caused an international uproar and hurt ongoing attempts at reconciliation (rapprochement).  The pilot was later traded in exchange for a Soviet spy held by the United States, but the cause of the crash of the U-2 plane remains a mystery.

Spying was a central aspect of the Cold War.  The United States sent secret spy planes to fly over the Soviet Union to take pictures of activities there from high in the sky.  But in 1960, while Eisenhower was still president, one of these "U-2" (not the rock group!) planes crashed and an American pilot was captured.  This caused an international uproar and hurt ongoing attempts at reconciliation (rapprochement).  The pilot was later traded in exchange for a Soviet spy held by the United States, but the cause of the crash of the U-2 plane remains a mystery.

In 1961, soon after the inauguration of the new President John F. Kennedy, the communists built the "Berlin Wall" quickly while Kennedy was enjoying a long vacation weekend.  This Wall sealed off the East German section of Berlin from the West German section in order to stop the migration of people from communism to freedom.  It was a humiliation to Kennedy that he did nothing to stop this, and many Americans were outraged by this barbarism of a massive wall to cage people in and end their freedom to leave.

In 1961, soon after the inauguration of the new President John F. Kennedy (the only Catholic president, who had defeated Richard Nixon in a very close election in 1960), the communists built the "Berlin Wall" quickly while Kennedy was enjoying a long vacation weekend.  This Wall sealed off the East German section of Berlin from the West German section in order to stop the migration of people from communism to freedom.  It was a humiliation to Kennedy that he did nothing to stop this, and many Americans were outraged by this barbarism of a massive wall to cage people in and end their freedom to leave.

Then, in 1962, the Soviet Union challenged President Kennedy again, whom the communists did not respect.  They installed missile launchers in Cuba, which the communist Fidel Castro had taken over, and aimed directly at American cities and targets.  Cuba, a mere 90 miles from Florida, could then destroy American cities in a very short period time.  This created the "Cuban Missile Crisis," and with the American Air Force immediately going on high alert for the possible bombing of Cuba.  President Kennedy then ordered a blockade of Cuba until the missile launchers were removed, and the Soviet Union backed down and ostensibly took the missiles back.  Some say that not all the missiles left Cuba, however, and it remains a threat to American security to this day.

Then, in 1962, the Soviet Union challenged President Kennedy again, whom the communists did not respect.  They installed missile launchers in Cuba, which the communist Fidel Castro had taken over, and aimed directly at American cities and targets.  Cuba, a mere 90 miles from Florida, could then destroy American cities in a very short period time.  This created the "Cuban Missile Crisis," and with the American Air Force immediately going on high alert for the possible bombing of Cuba.  President Kennedy then ordered a blockade of Cuba until the missile launchers were removed, and the Soviet Union backed down and ostensibly took the missiles back.  Some say that not all the missiles left Cuba, however, and it remains a threat to American security to this day.

In professional baseball, Jackie Robinson became the first black player in the Major Leagues and thereby broke the "color barrier" in 1947 by taking the field for the Brooklyn Dodgers.  While Robinson endured much derision during his first season, he persisted and became a tremendous player who was later elected to the baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown.  His accomplishments foreshadowed the civil rights movement.

In professional baseball, Jackie Robinson became the first black player in the Major Leagues and thereby broke the "color barrier" in 1947 by taking the field for the Brooklyn Dodgers.  While Robinson endured much derision during his first season, he persisted and became a tremendous player who was later elected to the baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown.  His accomplishments foreshadowed the civil rights movement.

In 1954, in a case brought by the National Association for Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and argued by its attorney and future Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that segregation of blacks and whites in public schools is unconstitutional.  This decision, named ''Brown v. Board of Education'' (1954), overturned the "separate but equal" decision of ''Plessy v. Ferguson'' that had established the rule since the late 1890s.

In 1954, in a case brought by the National Association for Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and argued by its attorney and future Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall (the first black appointed to the Court in 1967), the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that segregation of blacks and whites in public schools is unconstitutional.  This decision, named ''Brown v. Board of Education'' (1954), overturned the "separate but equal" decision of ''Plessy v. Ferguson'' that had established the rule since the late 1890s.

In 1955, African American woman Rosa Parks refused to walk to the back of the bus in Montgomery, Alabama, and instead sat at the front.  It was customary in the South at the time for blacks to sit at the back of the bus, leaving the seats at the front of the bus for whites.  Rosa Park defied this rule.  When authorities removed her from the bus, this sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott that lasted over a year from 1955 into 1956, until the Supreme Court ended this segregation on buses.

In 1955, African American woman Rosa Parks refused to walk to the back of the bus in Montgomery, Alabama, and instead sat at the front.  It was customary in the South at the time for blacks to sit at the back of the bus, leaving the seats at the front of the bus for whites.  Rosa Park defied this rule.  When authorities removed her from the bus, this sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott that lasted over a year from 1955 into 1956, until the Supreme Court ended this segregation on buses.

Several modern conveniences were introduced during the post-World War II Era including refrigerators, televisions, and many other household appliances we still use today.  America began to gain its status as one of the richest nations in the world.

Several modern conveniences were introduced during the post-World War II Era including refrigerators, televisions, and many other household appliances we still use today.  America began to gain its status as one of the richest nations in the world.

You might ask yourself whether the 1950s was a more ''conservative'' time than today.  Some, your teacher include, think that the nation is perpetually becoming more conservative as liberal ideas are perpetually demonstrated to be failures.  Like a young athlete or musician is perpetually improving from practice and growth, the nation might be constantly becoming more conservative.  Yet a glance at television shows from the 1950s suggest it was a more conservative time.  Was it really?  Consider all the issues, such as the tax rates (they were much higher in the 1950s), restrictions on freedoms (interest rates were fixed by the government then rather than by the free market today), the draft (it was required of young men then, but enlistment is voluntary today), unions are less of a problem today, communism (there were far more American communists in the 1950s), and education (homeschooling was mostly prohibited then, unlike today).  Some of the post-World War II legislation, such as the Full Employment Act of 1946, which tried to guarantee employment for every citizen, seems like silly socialism today.  (Note, however, that the Council of Economic Advisers established by that law still exists to advise the president about the economy today.)

You might ask yourself whether the 1950s was a more ''conservative'' time than today.  Some, your teacher include, think that the nation is perpetually becoming more conservative as liberal ideas are perpetually demonstrated to be failures.  Like a young athlete or musician is perpetually improving from practice and growth, the nation might be constantly becoming more conservative.  Yet a glance at television shows from the 1950s suggest it was a more conservative time.  Was it really?  Consider all the issues, such as the tax rates (they were much higher in the 1950s), restrictions on freedoms (interest rates were fixed by the government then rather than by the free market today), the draft (it was required of young men then, but enlistment is voluntary today), unions are less of a problem today, communism (there were far more American communists in the 1950s), Second Amendment rights are more secure in most places today, the threat of all-out nuclear war is less now, and homeschooling is legal today, but was illegal in the 1950s.  Some of the post-World War II legislation, such as the Full Employment Act of 1946, which tried to guarantee employment for every citizen, seems like silly socialism today.  (Note, however, that the Council of Economic Advisers established by that law still exists to advise the president about the economy today.)

'''Debate:  Was the 1950s more conservative than today?'''

'''Debate:  Was the 1950s more conservative than today?'''

After 30 states passed it in 1972 and 1973, only 3 passed ERA in 1974.  Just one passed it in 1975, none in 1976, and only one in 1977.  That brought the total to 35, just three shy of the 38 needed for ratification.  Meanwhile, the states of Idaho, Kentucky, Nebraska, Tennessee and South Dakota were persuaded they had made a mistake, and they passed laws nullifying or rescinding their acts.  Congress had set a deadline of 1979 for ERA to pass, but then changed its own deadline and reset it for 1982.  STOP ERA activists said this was as unfair as adding another period to a basketball game so the side would have an extra chance to catch up and win.  ERA finally failed in 1982, and the U.S. Supreme Court disposed of a legal case by saying the issue was now "moot" because the deadline passed.

After 30 states passed it in 1972 and 1973, only 3 passed ERA in 1974.  Just one passed it in 1975, none in 1976, and only one in 1977.  That brought the total to 35, just three shy of the 38 needed for ratification.  Meanwhile, the states of Idaho, Kentucky, Nebraska, Tennessee and South Dakota were persuaded they had made a mistake, and they passed laws nullifying or rescinding their acts.  Congress had set a deadline of 1979 for ERA to pass, but then changed its own deadline and reset it for 1982.  STOP ERA activists said this was as unfair as adding another period to a basketball game so the side would have an extra chance to catch up and win.  ERA finally failed in 1982, and the U.S. Supreme Court disposed of a legal case by saying the issue was now "moot" because the deadline passed.

The defeat of ERA helped elect a conservative president, Ronald Reagan.  In the one and only debate between Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, held less than two weeks before the election, Jimmy Carter raised his support of the ERA at the end of the debate in his final attempt to embarrass Ronald Reagan, who opposed it.<ref>http://www.debates.org/pages/trans80b.html</ref>  Reagan rebutted Carter's arguments, less than two weeks later Reagan won the election.

The defeat of ERA helped elect a conservative president, Ronald Reagan.  In the one and only debate between Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, held less than two weeks before the election, Jimmy Carter raised his support of the ERA at the end of the debate in his final attempt to embarrass Ronald Reagan, who opposed it.<ref>http://www.debates.org/pages/trans80b.html</ref>  Reagan rebutted Carter's arguments, less than two weeks later Reagan won the election in November 1980.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

== References ==

== References ==