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The '''Religious Society of Friends,''' or '''Quakers,''' is a Protestant religious denomination founded in England by [[George Fox]] in the 1650s. They have always been a small, radical, Protestant denomination with enormous political and social influence far beyond their small numbers.  The Society formed during the religious upheaval in 17th century [[England]] seeking the recovery of original Christianity. They earned the name "Quakers" for how members shook, or "quaked", reflecting their struggle against their inner motives "under the Light."<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p.28</ref>  Many migrated to America, especially to Philadelphia in the colony of Pennsylvania, which was owned by Quaker leader [[William Penn]]. Others went to [[New Jersey]], [[North Carolina]] and especially [[Rhode Island]], where they controlled the colonial government for a while.  Quakers were active leaders of many American reform movements past and present, especially abolition of slavery, Indians' rights, prohibition, women's rights, civil rights, prison reform, hospital reform, and world peace.  Other famous Quakers include founder [[George Fox]], feminist [[Lucretia Mott]], and presidents [[Herbert Hoover]] and [[Richard Nixon]].

The '''Religious Society of Friends,''' or '''Quakers,''' is a Protestant religious denomination founded in England by [[George Fox]] in the 1650s. They have always been a small, radical, Protestant denomination with enormous political and social influence far beyond their small numbers.  The Society formed during the religious upheaval in 17th century [[England]] seeking the recovery of original Christianity. They earned the name "Quakers" for how members shook, or "quaked", reflecting their struggle against their inner motives "under the Light."<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p.28</ref>  Many migrated to America, especially to Philadelphia in the colony of Pennsylvania, which was owned by Quaker leader [[William Penn]]. Others went to [[New Jersey]], [[North Carolina]] and especially [[Rhode Island]], where they controlled the colonial government for a while.  Quakers were active leaders of many American reform movements past and present, especially abolition of slavery, Indians' rights, prohibition, women's rights, civil rights, prison reform, hospital reform, and world peace.  Other famous Quakers include founder [[George Fox]], feminist [[Lucretia Mott]], and presidents [[Herbert Hoover]] and [[Richard Nixon]].

==Current status==

==Current status==

There are about 100,000 Quakers in the United States today.  Hamm (2003) identifies seven currently contested issues--the centrality of Christ, leadership, religious authority, sexuality, identity, unity, and growth. The Quakers are heavily involved with the Peace Testimony, support for "People of Color," the American Friends Service Committee, and the Friends Committee on National Legislation. They are well known for their support of liberal arts colleges including Haverford and Swarthmore (near Philadelphia) and Earlham (in Richmond, Indiana). A majority are affiliated with the Society of Friends (Five Years Meeting); others belong to the smaller Religious Society of Friends (General Conference), the Religious Society of Friends (Conservative), and the more fundamentalist Association of Evangelical Friends.  The denomination has a special appeal to disaffected liberals, who often join for a while (then usually move on). Politically, the Quakers in the Midwest are mostly conserbvative Republicans, while those in the East are more liberal Republicans.

There are about 100,000 Quakers in the United States today.  Hamm (2003) identifies seven currently contested issues--the centrality of Christ, leadership, religious authority, sexuality, identity, unity, and growth. The Quakers are heavily involved with the Peace Testimony, support for "People of Color," the American Friends Service Committee, and the Friends Committee on National Legislation. They are well known for their support of liberal arts colleges including Haverford and Swarthmore (near Philadelphia) and Earlham (in Richmond, Indiana). A majority are affiliated with the Society of Friends (Five Years Meeting); others belong to the smaller Religious Society of Friends (General Conference), the Religious Society of Friends (Conservative), and the more fundamentalist Association of Evangelical Friends.  The denomination has a special appeal to disaffected liberals, who often join for a while (then usually move on). Politically, the Quakers in the Midwest are mostly conservative Republicans, while those in the East are more liberal Republicans.

About 20,000 Quakers now live in Britain, and several thousand in Canada. Overseas missions, starting in 1903, were most successful in Africa, especially Kenya, which has 300,000 Quakers in 15 Yearly Meetings.<ref> See [http://fwccafrica.org/Demographics/Kenya/Kenya.html] Rasmussen, (1995) and Smuck, (1987)</ref>

About 20,000 Quakers now live in Britain, and several thousand in Canada. Overseas missions, starting in 1903, were most successful in Africa, especially Kenya, which has 300,000 Quakers in 15 Yearly Meetings.<ref> See [http://fwccafrica.org/Demographics/Kenya/Kenya.html] Rasmussen, (1995) and Smuck, (1987)</ref>

==Beliefs==

==Beliefs==

George Fox described himself as [[Christian]] and so do many, but not necessarily all, Quakers. Quakers believe in direct ''revelation'', often referred to as the ''inner light'' or, in Fox's words, "that of God in everyone." Traditional Quaker meetings take place mostly in silence, with individual members standing up to speak when they believe they are moved to do so by God. [[Margaret Fell]] wrote that Fox had said

The core beliefs among American Friends in the 21st century are worship that is based on the leading of the Spirit; the ministry of all believers; decision making through the traditional Quaker business process; simplicity as a basic philosophy of life; and a commitment to education as a manifestation of Quaker faith.<ref> Hamm (2003) p. 64</ref>

 

Although Quakers revere the Bible and quote from it extensively, they do not consider it as authoritative as the Inner Light. They deny the special authority of an ordained clergy and reject all ritual in religious worship. They believe that a true church is created by the fellowship of man rather than a building people meet in to worship.  Small groups of Quakers gather weekly for devotion in "meetings" where members usually sit together silently in a bare room, waiting for the Inward Christ to speak through one of them who may be inspired to "give testimony." There is no altar, no recitation of prayers, and no hymn singing at the meeting.  The Bible is rejected as the authoritative word of God and replaced with the authoritative messages of the Inward Christ.

 

There are some "pastoral" Quaker meetings, however, which have "programmed" worship, with hymns and other music, scripture readings, and a sermon or message from a designated pastor, along with a brief period of silence for testimony.

 

Quakers believe in direct ''revelation'', often referred to as the ''inner light'' or, in Fox's words, "that of God in everyone." Traditional Quaker meetings take place mostly in silence, with individual members standing up to speak when they believe they are moved to do so by God. [[Margaret Fell]] wrote that Fox had said

:the Scriptures were the Prophet's words, and [[Christ]]'s and the Apostle's words, and what, as they spoke, they enjoyed and possessed, and had it from the Lord and said, then what had any to do with the Scriptures, but as they came to the [[Holy Spirit|Spirit]], which gave them forth. You will say, Christ says this, and the Apostles say this but what can thou say? Are thou a child of Light, and have walked in the Light, and that thou speaks, is it inwardly from God?  

:the Scriptures were the Prophet's words, and [[Christ]]'s and the Apostle's words, and what, as they spoke, they enjoyed and possessed, and had it from the Lord and said, then what had any to do with the Scriptures, but as they came to the [[Holy Spirit|Spirit]], which gave them forth. You will say, Christ says this, and the Apostles say this but what can thou say? Are thou a child of Light, and have walked in the Light, and that thou speaks, is it inwardly from God?  

==Peace==

==Peace==

Quakers are have a strong [[pacifist]] tradition. The Society of Friends is, along with the [[Mennonites]] and the [[Plymouth Brethren]] one of the historic peace churches. However there is also a non-pacifist tradition of "fighting Quakers."

Quakers have a strong [[pacifist]] tradition. The Society of Friends is, along with the [[Mennonites]] and the [[Plymouth Brethren]] one of the historic peace churches. However there is also a non-pacifist tradition of "fighting Quakers."

==Plain dress==

==Plain dress==

Historically, Quakers were a [[nonconformist]] body. In the early twentieth century, many Quakers began to drop traditional Quaker folkways such as plain Quaker dress ("Quaker grey") and "plain speech" (particularly the use of "thee" and "thou") and replace them with modern interpretations such as not "dressing up" to attend meeting for worship.  

Historically, Quakers were a [[nonconformist]] body. In the early twentieth century, many Quakers began to drop traditional Quaker folkways such as plain Quaker dress ("Quaker grey") and "plain speech" (particularly the use of "thee" and "thou") and replace them with modern interpretations such as not "dressing up" to attend meeting for worship.  

* The testimony of '''Integrity''' requires strict honesty and truthfulness, mutual trust and fidelity in our relations with other people. Friends are greatly concerned about truth and integrity in public affairs. As part of this testimony, most Friends refuse to swear an oath, believing that their word should be equally truthful whether they are on oath or not. Friends normally affirm if required to give evidence in court. The testimony of Integrity also includes a testimony of Stewardship, which  focuses on conservation of the environment as a concern for 'the integrity of creation'.

* The testimony of '''Integrity''' requires strict honesty and truthfulness, mutual trust and fidelity in our relations with other people. Friends are greatly concerned about truth and integrity in public affairs. As part of this testimony, most Friends refuse to swear an oath, believing that their word should be equally truthful whether they are on oath or not. Friends normally affirm if required to give evidence in court. The testimony of Integrity also includes a testimony of Stewardship, which  focuses on conservation of the environment as a concern for 'the integrity of creation'.

* The testimony of '''Community''', along with the testament of Equality means that Quakers have generally been at the forefront of penal reform and opposition to capital punishment, emphasising the need for rehabilitation rather than retribution. Community also includes Compassion, which includes the traditional Quaker concern for the relief of suffering due to famine, natural disasters and war. More recently concern for situations nearer at home have emerged, especially for homeless, disadvantaged or elderly people and those who are particularly vulnerable, such as political prisoners, those with AIDS and those who are addicted to drugs. Compassion for animals has led to opposition to factory farming and other forms of cruelty.

* The testimony of '''Community''', along with the testament of Equality means that Quakers have generally been at the forefront of penal reform and opposition to capital punishment, emphasizing the need for rehabilitation rather than retribution. Community also includes Compassion, which includes the traditional Quaker concern for the relief of suffering due to famine, natural disasters and war. More recently concern for situations nearer at home have emerged, especially for homeless, disadvantaged or elderly people and those who are particularly vulnerable, such as political prisoners, those with AIDS and those who are addicted to drugs. Compassion for animals has led to opposition to factory farming and other forms of cruelty.

* The testimony of '''Equality''' emphasises social equality and the need to accept every person individually, and not to regard anyone only as a member of a class or category. Friends oppose discrimination or exploitation on the grounds of creed, race, sex, sexual orientation, mental or physical ability, age or social status. This testimony also seeks a fairer distribution of wealth, and equal opportunities for employment and education, and in housing and health services.

* The testimony of '''Equality''' emphasizes social equality and the need to accept every person individually, and not to regard anyone only as a member of a class or category. Friends oppose discrimination or exploitation on the grounds of creed, race, sex, sexual orientation, mental or physical ability, age or social status. This testimony also seeks a fairer distribution of wealth, and equal opportunities for employment and education, and in housing and health services.

These testimonies stretch back to the roots of Quaker history, but the way they are adopted by Quakers is as individual as Quakers themselves, as can be seen in a footnote to the Letter from the Elders Gathered at Balby, 1656 which says:

These testimonies stretch back to the roots of Quaker history, but the way they are adopted by Quakers is as individual as Quakers themselves, as can be seen in a footnote to the Letter from the Elders Gathered at Balby, 1656 which says:

* Barbour, Hugh, and J. William Frost. ''The Quakers.'' Greenwood Press. 1988, 412pp; historical survey, including many capsule biographies [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98470032 online edition]

* Barbour, Hugh, and J. William Frost. ''The Quakers.'' Greenwood Press. 1988, 412pp; historical survey, including many capsule biographies [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98470032 online edition]

* Barbour, Hugh. ''The Quakers in Puritan England'' (1964).

* Barbour, Hugh. ''The Quakers in Puritan England'' (1964).

* Benjamin, Philip. ''Philadelphia Quakers in an Age of Industrialism, 1870-1920'' (1976),

* Benjamin, Philip. ''Philadelphia Quakers in an Age of Industrialism, 1870-1920'' (1976),

* Braithwaite, William C. ''The Beginnings of Quakerism'' (1912); revised by Henry J. Cadbury (1955)  [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=62095557 online edition]

* Braithwaite, William C. ''The Beginnings of Quakerism'' (1912); revised by Henry J. Cadbury (1955)  [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=62095557 online edition]

* Braithwaite, William C. ''Second Period of Quakerism'' (1919); revised by Henry Cadbury (1961), covers 1660 to 1720s in Britain

* Braithwaite, William C. ''Second Period of Quakerism'' (1919); revised by Henry Cadbury (1961), covers 1660 to 1720s in Britain

* Brock, Peter. ''Pioneers of the Peaceable Kingdom'' (1968), on Peace Testimony from the 1650s to 1900.

* Brock, Peter. ''Pioneers of the Peaceable Kingdom'' (1968), on Peace Testimony from the 1650s to 1900.

* Bronner, Edwin B. ''William Penn's Holy Experiment'' (1962)

* Bronner, Edwin B. ''William Penn's Holy Experiment'' (1962)

* Connerley, Jennifer.  "Friendly Americans: Representing Quakers in the United States, 1850-1920."  PhD dissertation U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 2006. 277 pp.  Citation: DAI 2006 67(2): 600-A. DA3207363  online at [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]

* Connerley, Jennifer.  "Friendly Americans: Representing Quakers in the United States, 1850-1920."  PhD dissertation U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 2006. 277 pp.  Citation: DAI 2006 67(2): 600-A. DA3207363  online at [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]

* Davies, Adrian.  ''The Quakers in English Society, 1655-1725.'' Oxford U. Press, 2000. 261 pp.   

* Davies, Adrian.  ''The Quakers in English Society, 1655-1725.'' (2000). 261 pp.   

* Doherty, Robert. ''The Hicksite Separation'' (1967), uses the new social history to inquire who joined which side

* Doherty, Robert. ''The Hicksite Separation'' (1967), uses the new social history to inquire who joined which side

* Dunn,  Mary Maples. ''William Penn: Politics and Conscience'' (1967)

* Dunn,  Mary Maples. ''William Penn: Politics and Conscience'' (1967)

* Frost, J. William. ''The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Friends'' (1973), emphasis on social structure and family life  

* Frost, J. William. ''The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Friends'' (1973), emphasis on social structure and family life  

* Frost, J. William. "The Origins of the Quaker Crusade against Slavery: A Review of Recent Literature," ''Quaker History'' 67 (1978): 42-58,  

* Frost, J. William. "The Origins of the Quaker Crusade against Slavery: A Review of Recent Literature," ''Quaker History'' 67 (1978): 42-58,  

* Hamm, Thomas. ''The Quakers in America.'' Columbia University Press, 2003. 293 pp., amalysis of current situation, with brief history

* Hamm, Thomas. ''The Quakers in America.'' (2003). 293 pp., strong analysis of current situation, with brief history

* Hamm, Thomas. ''The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800-1907'' (1988), looks at the impact of the Holiness movement on the Orthodox faction

* Hamm, Thomas. ''The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800-1907'' (1988), looks at the impact of the Holiness movement on the Orthodox faction

* Hamm, Thomas D.  ''Earlham College: A History, 1847-1997.'' Indiana U. Press, 1997. 448 pp.   

* Hamm, Thomas D.  ''Earlham College: A History, 1847-1997.'' (1997). 448 pp.   

* Hewitt, Nancy. ''Women's Activism and Social Change'' (1984).

* Hewitt, Nancy. ''Women's Activism and Social Change'' (1984).

* Illick, Joseph E. ''Colonial Pennsylvania: A History.'' 1976. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=4151675# online edition]

* Illick, Joseph E. ''Colonial Pennsylvania: A History.'' 1976. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=4151675# online edition]

* Ingle, H. Larry ''Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation'' (1986)

* Ingle, H. Larry ''Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation'' (1986)

* Ingle, H. Larry.  ''First among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism.'' Oxford U. Press, 1994. 407 pp.   

* Ingle, H. Larry.  ''First among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism.'' (1994). 407 pp.   

* James, Sydney. ''A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America'' (1963), a broad ranging study that remains the best history in America before 1800

* James, Sydney. ''A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America'' (1963), a broad ranging study that remains the best history in America before 1800

* Jones, Rufus M., Amelia M. Gummere, and Isaac Sharpless. ''Quakers in the American Colonies'' (1911) to 1775 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6633084 online edition]

* Jones, Rufus M., Amelia M. Gummere, and Isaac Sharpless. ''Quakers in the American Colonies'' (1911), history to 1775 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6633084 online edition]

* Jones, Rufus M. ''Later Periods of Quakerism,'' 2 vols. (1921), covers England and America until World War I.

* Jones, Rufus M. ''Later Periods of Quakerism,'' 2 vols. (1921), covers England and America until World War I.

* Jones, Rufus M. ''The Story of George Fox'' (1919) 169 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=5YcIAAAAMAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=inauthor:Jones+inauthor:Rufus&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=AsJpguGlx8b4SLsilr3XUbAzZGA online edition]

* Jones, Rufus M. ''The Story of George Fox'' (1919) 169 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=5YcIAAAAMAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=inauthor:Jones+inauthor:Rufus&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=AsJpguGlx8b4SLsilr3XUbAzZGA online edition]

* Jordan, Ryan. "The Dilemma of Quaker Pacifism in a Slaveholding Republic, 1833-1865," ''Civil War History,'' Vol. 53, 2007 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5020095133 online edition]

* Jordan, Ryan. "The Dilemma of Quaker Pacifism in a Slaveholding Republic, 1833-1865," ''Civil War History,'' Vol. 53, 2007 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5020095133 online edition]

* Jordan, Ryan. ''Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820–1865.'' (2007) 191pp ISBN 0-253-34860-9

* Jordan, Ryan. ''Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820–1865.'' (2007) 191pp ISBN 0-253-34860-9

* Kennedy, Thomas C.  ''British Quakerism, 1860-1920: The Transformation of a Religious Community.'' Oxford U. Press, 2001. 477 pp.   

* Kennedy, Thomas C.  ''British Quakerism, 1860-1920: The Transformation of a Religious Community.'' (2001). 477 pp.   

* Larson, Rebecca.  ''Daughters of Light: Quaker Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies and Abroad, 1700-1775.'' Knopf, 1999. 399 pp.   

* Larson, Rebecca.  ''Daughters of Light: Quaker Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies and Abroad, 1700-1775.'' (1999). 399 pp.   

* LeShana, James David.  "'Heavenly Plantations': Quakers in Colonial North Carolina." PhD dissertation: U. of California, Riverside 1998. 362 pp.  DAI 2000 61(5): 2005-A. DA9974014  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]

* LeShana, James David.  "'Heavenly Plantations': Quakers in Colonial North Carolina." PhD dissertation: U. of California, Riverside 1998. 362 pp.  DAI 2000 61(5): 2005-A. DA9974014  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]

* Moore, Rosemary.  ''The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in Britain, 1646-1666.'' Penn State U. Press, 2000. 314 pp.   

* Moore, Rosemary.  ''The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in Britain, 1646-1666.'' (2000). 314 pp.   

* Nash, Gary. ''Quakers and Politics: Pennsylvania, 1680-1726'' (1968)

* Nash, Gary. ''Quakers and Politics: Pennsylvania, 1680-1726'' (1968)

* Punshon, John.  ''Portrait in Grey: A short history of the Quakers.'' Quaker Home Service, 1984.

* Punshon, John.  ''Portrait in Grey: A short history of the Quakers.'' Quaker Home Service, 1984.

* Smuck, Harold. ''Friends in East Africa'' (Richmond, Indiana: 1987)  

* Smuck, Harold. ''Friends in East Africa'' (Richmond, Indiana: 1987)  

* Trueblood, D. Elton ''The People Called Quakers'' (1966)

* Trueblood, D. Elton ''The People Called Quakers'' (1966)

* Tolles, Frederick B. ''Meeting House and Counting House'' (1948), om Quaker businessmen in colonial Philadelphia

* Tolles, Frederick B. ''Meeting House and Counting House'' (1948), on Quaker businessmen in colonial Philadelphia

* Tolles, Frederick B. ''Quakers and the Atlantic Culture'' (1960)

* Tolles, Frederick B. ''Quakers and the Atlantic Culture'' (1960)

* Vlach, John Michael. "Quaker Tradition and the Paintings of Edward Hicks: A Strategy for the Study of Folk Art," ''Journal of American Folklore,'' Vol. 94, 1981 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77523982 online edition]

* Vlach, John Michael. "Quaker Tradition and the Paintings of Edward Hicks: A Strategy for the Study of Folk Art," ''Journal of American Folklore,'' Vol. 94, 1981 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=77523982 online edition]

* Walvin, James.  ''The Quakers: Money and Morals.'' 1997. 243 pp.  

* Walvin, James.  ''The Quakers: Money and Morals.'' (1997). 243 pp.  

*  Yarrow, Clarence H. ''The Quaker Experience in International Conciliation'' (1979), for post-1945

*  Yarrow, Clarence H. ''The Quaker Experience in International Conciliation'' (1979), for post-1945