Changes

==On the trail==

==On the trail==

The town of Independence, Missouri, was the usual jumping off point. As they moved out the wagon party organized a self-government by electing officers and adopting rules of conduct. The emigrants gathered in time to leave in the early spring, so as to take advantage of the fresh pasturage for their oxen, horses and cattle. From Independence they followed the old Santa Fe Trail across flat grasslands (now in Nebraska). At Fort Laramie (now in Wyoming), the base of the mountains, they trains stopped for repairs and resupply The trail used South Pass to cross the Rocky Mountains at a relatively low elevation of “only” 7,500 feet. Travel now became much harder.  Much of the land was barren with poor pasturage, or involved steep climbs and descents, wearing out the already exhausted horses and oxen.  There was no alternative but to throw away excess baggage and furniture. Carcasses of the innumerable dead cattle and horses were left along the trail while the bodies of the human dead were buried in shallow graves with simple markers. The Grande Ronde Valley, in northeast Oregon, had good pasturage, a breather before they had to cross the difficult Blue Mountains. Coming down on the other side the trains followed the Umatilla River to the Columbia River, which they followed to Fort Vancouver. Traveling through the Columbia River Gorge from The Dalles to Portland was a new challenge. Traversing the gorge usually meant putting their wagons and possessions on makeshift rafts and boats and heading downstream, a passage that varied from placid waters necessitating poling to dangerous rapids. A trail paralleling the river was used to bring cattle and other livestock. Travelers endured bad weather, wind, sanitation problems, disease, and the fatigue that came at the end of a trek across the continent. Forage was scarce and food supplies dwindled.  

The town of Independence, Missouri, was the usual jumping off point. As they moved out the wagon party organized a self-government by electing officers and adopting rules of conduct. The emigrants gathered in time to leave in the early spring, so as to take advantage of the fresh pasturage for their oxen, horses and cattle. From Independence they followed the old Santa Fe Trail across flat grasslands (now in Nebraska). At Fort Laramie (now in Wyoming), the base of the mountains, they trains stopped for repairs and resupply The trail used South Pass to cross the Rocky Mountains at a relatively low elevation of “only” 7,500 feet. Travel now became much harder.  Much of the land was barren with poor pasturage, or involved steep climbs and descents, wearing out the already exhausted horses and oxen.  There was no alternative but to throw away excess baggage and furniture. Carcasses of the innumerable dead cattle and horses were left along the trail while the bodies of the human dead were buried in shallow graves with simple markers. The Grande Ronde Valley, in northeast Oregon, had good pasturage, a breather before they had to cross the difficult Blue Mountains. Coming down on the other side the trains followed the Umatilla River to the Columbia River, which they followed to Fort Vancouver. Traveling through the Columbia River Gorge from The Dalles to Portland was a new challenge. Traversing the gorge usually meant putting their wagons and possessions on makeshift rafts and boats and heading downstream, a passage that varied from placid waters necessitating poling to dangerous rapids. A trail paralleling the river was used to bring cattle and other livestock. Travelers endured bad weather, wind, sanitation problems, disease, and the fatigue that came at the end of a trek across the continent. Forage was scarce and food supplies dwindled.  

The wagon traffic during the 1840s and 1850s was so heavy that the road was a clearly defined and deeply rutted way across the country. When the ruts became too deep for travel, parallel roads were broken. The 2,000 mile trek tested the outer limits of human endurance and organizational skill. The many surviving diaries of the overland journey invariable mention the graves passed each day. Cholera was the most serious medical problem.  After 1850 the wagon trains used better-adapted equipment. Specially constructed wagons became available; oxen largely replaced horses; and supplies were selected more wisely. The route was now easy to follow and even included crude ferries at some of the most difficult river crossings.  

Food problems were eased by the use of "portable soup" tablets(bouillon cubes), meat biscuits and powdered milk (the latter two invented by Gail Borden). Mostly they ate salted pork, biscuits, soup and dried fruit, supplements with wild game shot along the way. Canned foods were available after 1850.<ref> William (1993)</ref>

==Memory==

==Memory==

* Lavender, David. ''Westward Vision: The Story of the Oregon Trail''. (1961) [http://www.questia.com/read/15031627?title=Westward%20Vision%3a%20The%20Story%20of%20the%20Oregon%20Trail online edition], good popular history

* Lavender, David. ''Westward Vision: The Story of the Oregon Trail''. (1961) [http://www.questia.com/read/15031627?title=Westward%20Vision%3a%20The%20Story%20of%20the%20Oregon%20Trail online edition], good popular history

* Unruh, John D., Jr. ''The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-1860.'' (1979), the outstanding scholarly history. [http://books.google.com/books?id=hM2_IXMY3jQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:The+intitle:Plains+intitle:Across+intitle:The+intitle:Overland+intitle:Emigrants&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 excerpt and text search]

* Unruh, John D., Jr. ''The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-1860.'' (1979), the outstanding scholarly history. [http://books.google.com/books?id=hM2_IXMY3jQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:The+intitle:Plains+intitle:Across+intitle:The+intitle:Overland+intitle:Emigrants&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 excerpt and text search]

===Primary sources===

===Primary sources===

* Moeller, Bill and Moeller, Jan. ''The Oregon Trail: A Photographic Journey.'' (Missoula: Mountain Press, 2001). 301 pp.

* Moeller, Bill and Moeller, Jan. ''The Oregon Trail: A Photographic Journey.'' (Missoula: Mountain Press, 2001). 301 pp.