Changes

===Holy Places===

===Holy Places===

In 1852 the Christian holy places in Jerusalem were subjected to a regulatory status known as the "status quo" by Ottoman authorities. The imposition of the status quo regulations were an attempt to put an end to ongoing strife between Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic factions engaged in a nasty dispute over control of the holy places. The status quo reaffirmed the precedence of the Greek Orthodox Church. The 1878 Treaty of Berlin confirmed the decision of the Ottoman rulers of Jerusalem, and this arrangement was passed on to the successive British and Israeli governors of Jerusalem.  

In 1852 the Christian holy places in Jerusalem were subjected to a regulatory status known as the "status quo" by Ottoman authorities. The imposition of the status quo regulations were an attempt to put an end to ongoing strife between Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic factions engaged in a nasty dispute over control of the holy places. The status quo reaffirmed the precedence of the Greek Orthodox Church. The 1878 Treaty of Berlin confirmed the decision of the Ottoman rulers of Jerusalem, and this arrangement was passed on to the successive British and Israeli governors of Jerusalem.  

===Bulgarian massacres===

===Bulgarian massacres===

The "Bulgarian Horrors" were systematic massacres of thousands of Bulgarian Christians by Ottoman forces in 1876-77. In Britain Liberal leader [[William Ewart Gladstone]] exploited the horror to embarrass the Conservative government of [[Benjamin Disraeli]], who tried to prop up the Ottoman regime as a counter-weight to Russia.  Meanwhile the British seized effective control over Egypt, which nominally still belonged to the Ottoman Empire.

The "Bulgarian Horrors" were systematic massacres of thousands of Bulgarian Christians by Ottoman forces in 1876-77. In Britain Liberal leader [[William Ewart Gladstone]] exploited the horror to embarrass the Conservative government of [[Benjamin Disraeli]], who tried to prop up the Ottoman regime as a counter-weight to Russia.  Meanwhile in 1882 the British seized effective control over Egypt, which nominally still belonged to the Ottoman Empire.

===Armenians===

===Armenians===

In the 1870s from the point of view of both the Ottoman administrators and the Muslim population, the Christian Armenians were considered 'tebaa-i sadika' (loyal subjects), loyal to the state and on good terms with their Muslim neighbors. Nevertheless, the rise of nationalist ideologies in Europe and, in particular, the success of the Greek and Serbian independence movements made a deep impression on Armenian intellectuals. With the support of Britain, this impression quickly turned into a widespread and organized revolt against the Ottoman state and evolved into a movement for independence. After the 1877-78 Russo-Turkish War, Britain, which supported this revolt, began a campaign against the Ottomans based on several arguments: the Ottoman state and Turks in general were not civilized, the citizens of the empire were not allowed basic freedoms, and the government subjected its citizens to immense cruelty and massacres. Full scale genocide against the Armenians came during World War I.

In the 1870s from the point of view of both the Ottoman administrators and the Muslim population, the Christian Armenians were considered 'tebaa-i sadika' (loyal subjects), loyal to the state and on good terms with their Muslim neighbors. Nevertheless, the rise of nationalist ideologies in Europe and, in particular, the success of the Greek and Serbian independence movements made a deep impression on Armenian intellectuals. With the support of Britain, this impression quickly turned into a widespread and organized revolt against the Ottoman state and evolved into a movement for independence. After the 1877-78 Russo-Turkish War, Britain, which supported this revolt, began a campaign against the Ottomans based on several arguments: the Ottoman state and Turks in general were not civilized, the citizens of the empire were not allowed basic freedoms, and the government subjected its citizens to immense cruelty and massacres. Full scale genocide against the Armenians came during World War I.

 

==20th century==

==20th century==

see [[Turkey]]

see [[Turkey]]

===World War I===

===World War I===

The Ottoman Empire fought alongside the [[Central Powers]] during [[World War I]] and collapsed after its defeat.  It was during this time when the [[Armenia#genocide|Armenian genocide]] occurred.   

The Ottoman Empire fought alongside the [[Central Powers]] during [[World War I]] and collapsed after its defeat.  It was during this time when the [[Armenia#genocide|Armenian genocide]] occurred.   

The British expected easy victories, and sent armies into Mesopotamia (Iraq), which were badly defeated, and landed at Gallipoli in order to capture Istanbul, and were even more decisively defeated in 1915.  [[Winston Churchill]] and other top British leaders envisioned an operation in which they placed their strength against Ottoman weakness. Instead of engaging a feeble opponent, however, the British faced the best-trained and best-led divisions in the Ottoman army and were up against the most heavily fortified and well-prepared positions in the Ottoman Empire. In command and control the Ottoman army performed well at all levels, and Ottoman soldiers proved to be effective fighters on the defensive. The Germans, furthermore, provided very talented generals and senior staff members to aid and help direct the Ottoman effort. As a result the Ottoman army fought the British to a stalemate, leading the British to abandon the campaign.<ref> Edward J. Erickson, "Strength Against Weakness: Ottoman Military Effectiveness At Gallipoli, 1915." ''Journal Of Military History'' 2001 65(4): 981-1011</ref>

The British expected easy victories, and sent armies into Mesopotamia (Iraq), which were badly defeated, and landed at Gallipoli in order to capture Constantinople, and were even more decisively defeated in 1915.  The British were successful in moving from Egypt to conquer Palestine, using the aid of Arab nationalists stirred up by British officer Lawrence of Arabia ([[T.E. Lawrence]]).

 

[[Winston Churchill]] and other top British leaders envisioned an operation in which they placed their strength against Ottoman weakness. Instead of engaging a feeble opponent, however, the British faced the best-trained and best-led divisions in the Ottoman army and were up against the most heavily fortified and well-prepared positions in the Ottoman Empire. In command and control the Ottoman army performed well at all levels, and Ottoman soldiers proved to be effective fighters on the defensive. The Germans, furthermore, provided very talented generals and senior staff members to aid and help direct the Ottoman effort. As a result the Ottoman army fought the British to a stalemate, leading the British to abandon the campaign.<ref> Edward J. Erickson, "Strength Against Weakness: Ottoman Military Effectiveness At Gallipoli, 1915." ''Journal Of Military History'' 2001 65(4): 981-1011</ref>

After the war much of the territory of the Ottoman Empire was placed under British and French control, while [[Mustafa Kemal Ataturk]] led a revolution and established the secular nation of [[Turkey]].

The secret wartime Sykes-Picot Agreement in 1916 was a plan for Russian, British, and French administration of dismembered Ottoman lands in the Middle East and Central Asia.  Russia dropped out but at the 1919 [[Paris Peace Conference]] much of the territory of the Ottoman Empire was placed under British and French control, while [[Mustafa Kemal Ataturk]] led a revolution and established the secular nation of [[Turkey]].

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

* Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. ''History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 2, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975.'' 1977. [http://www.amazon.com/History-Ottoman-Empire-Modern-Turkey/dp/0521291666/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196874166&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

* Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. ''History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 2, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975.'' 1977. [http://www.amazon.com/History-Ottoman-Empire-Modern-Turkey/dp/0521291666/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196874166&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

* Toledano, Ehud R. ''The Ottoman Slave Trade and Its Suppression, 1840–1890.'' 1982

* Toledano, Ehud R. ''The Ottoman Slave Trade and Its Suppression, 1840–1890.'' 1982

[[Category:Former Countries]]

[[Category:Former Countries]]

[[Category:Middle East]]

[[Category:Middle East]]

[[Category:World War I]]

[[Category:World War I]]