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==Egypt==

==Egypt==

Ancient Egypt was a tremendous civilization located in the fertile Nile Valley.  Ancient Egypt existed from about 3000 B.C. up until Alexander the Great conquered it in 332 B.C.  The Nile is the greatest river in the world, and is unique in flowing south-to-north, emptying into the Mediterranean Sea.  It floods with great regularity each year (unlike the Tigris and Euphrates rivers), providing plentiful water for farming.  Situated in a desert, Egypt developed irrigation techniques that led it to be called an “hydraulic empire.”

Ancient Egypt was a tremendous civilization located in the fertile Nile Valley.  Ancient Egypt existed from about 3000 B.C. up until Alexander the Great conquered it in 332 B.C.  The Nile is the greatest river in the world, and is unique in flowing south-to-north, emptying into the Mediterranean Sea.  It floods with great regularity each year (unlike the Tigris and Euphrates rivers), providing plentiful water for farming.  Situated in a desert, Egypt developed irrigation techniques that led it to be called an "hydraulic empire."

What is special about Egypt?  Well, for starters, it is the oldest stationary civilization that remains in existence. Geography helped protect it against invaders.  To its east and west are deserts, to the north is the Mediterranean Sea and to the south is the rest of Africa and the Nile.  In between is the great and mighty Nile.  Egypt is self-sufficient with natural resources also, having plentiful clay and stone and being able to trade for timber from nearby Lebanon and copper from Sinai.  Just as the unique, closed-in geography of the island of Manhattan has encouraged the development of a powerful economy in New York City, the landscape of Egypt enhanced its independence.  Even when conquered, the civilization does not shift anywhere, thanks to the natural boundaries.   

What is special about Egypt?  Well, for starters, it is the oldest stationary civilization that remains in existence. Geography helped protect it against invaders.  To its east and west are deserts, to the north is the Mediterranean Sea and to the south is the rest of Africa and the Nile.  In between is the great and mighty Nile.  Egypt is self-sufficient with natural resources also, having plentiful clay and stone and being able to trade for timber from nearby Lebanon and copper from Sinai.  Just as the unique, closed-in geography of the island of Manhattan has encouraged the development of a powerful economy in New York City, the landscape of Egypt enhanced its independence.  Even when conquered, the civilization does not shift anywhere, thanks to the natural boundaries.   

Ancient Egypt was always ruled a "pharaoh" or king, who was considered to be a god and absolute owner and dictator of the country.  He was worshiped by the people.

Ancient Egypt was always ruled a "pharaoh" or king, who was considered to be a god and absolute owner and dictator of the country.  He was worshiped by the people.

The Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks and British did conquer and rule over it at some point.  In that respect, the story of who ran Egypt is an account of the great world powers in history.  Egypt did not have native rule between 341 B.C., when the Persians conquered the last Pharaoh (Nectanebo II), until to 1952, when the native Egyptian president Nasser overthrew a British constitutional monarchy.

The Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks and British did conquer and rule over it at some point.  In that respect, the story of who ran Egypt is an account of the great world powers in history.  Egypt did not have native rule between 341 B.C., when the Persians conquered the last Pharaoh (Nectanebo II), until until A.D. 1952, when the native Egyptian president Nasser overthrew a British constitutional monarchy.

Ancient Egypt is divided into three periods:  Old Kingdom (3100-2200 B.C.), Middle Kingdom (2100-1650 B.C.) and New Kingdom (1550-700 B.C.).  The peak in power of ancient Egypt was 1567-1085 B.C.  The Old Kingdom is known for its security and prosperity, free from foreign invaders.  A unique Egyptian kingship developed during this period, and they built the great pyramids, including the Great Pyramid of Giza (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) as built by Pharaoh Khufu or Cheops (KEE-aps).  The pyramids protected and preserved pharaohs for what they expected in the after-life, and were marvelous engineering feats that cannot be duplicated even today.

Ancient Egypt is divided into three periods:  Old Kingdom (3100-2200 B.C.), Middle Kingdom (2100-1650 B.C.) and New Kingdom (1550-700 B.C.).  The peak in power of ancient Egypt was 1567-1085 B.C.  The Old Kingdom is known for its security and prosperity, free from foreign invaders.  A unique Egyptian kingship developed during this period, and they built the great pyramids, including the Great Pyramid of Giza (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) as built by Pharaoh Khufu or Cheops (pronounced KEE-aps).  The pyramids protected and preserved pharaohs for what they expected in the after-life, and were marvelous engineering feats that cannot be duplicated even today.

The Middle Kingdom was a period during which Egyptian religion extended beyond the kings to the nobles and ordinary citizens.  Pharaohs began to share power with local distinguished persons.  The pharaohs were strong during this period and promoted trade by digging the Great Canal, which connected the Nile River to the Red Sea.  The Middle Kingdom is best known for its cultural achievements, such as literature and artwork.  During this period the Egyptians were also successful in draining parts of the Nile delta in Lower (northern) Egypt.  Trade expanded, but civil war plagued the Middle Kingdom just as it was a problem in the Old Kingdom.

The Middle Kingdom was a period during which Egyptian religion extended beyond the kings to the nobles and ordinary citizens.  Pharaohs began to share power with local distinguished persons.  The pharaohs were strong during this period and promoted trade by digging the Great Canal, which connected the Nile River to the Red Sea.  The Middle Kingdom is best known for its cultural achievements, such as literature and artwork.  During this period the Egyptians were also successful in draining parts of the Nile delta in Lower (northern) Egypt.  Trade expanded, but civil war plagued the Middle Kingdom just as it was a problem in the Old Kingdom.

The New Kingdom followed a period of foreign rule for a century by the Hyksos (HIK-sohs) (from 1650 to 1580 B.C.), who were Semitic peoples invading Egypt from across the Sinai Peninsula.  The Hyksos adopted much of Egyptian culture, including calling themselves pharaohs.  The Hyksos introduced the horse and chariot into Egypt.  Afterwards, the Egyptians extended their empire along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean into Mesopotamia, primarily under the great warrior Thutmose III.  A dynasty from Upper Egypt began this period of the New Kingdom, and it extended throughout Syria, Palestine and, to the south, Nubia.  Also, the pharaohs constructed large buildings and massive cities.

The New Kingdom followed a period of foreign rule for a century by the Hyksos (HIK-sohs) (from 1650 to 1580 B.C.), who were Semitic peoples invading Egypt from across the Sinai Peninsula.  The Hyksos adopted much of Egyptian culture, including calling themselves pharaohs.  The Hyksos introduced the horse and chariot into Egypt.  Afterward, the Egyptians extended their empire along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean into Mesopotamia, primarily under the great warrior Thutmose III.  A dynasty from Upper Egypt began this period of the New Kingdom, and it extended throughout Syria, Palestine and, to the south, Nubia.  Also, the pharaohs constructed large buildings and massive cities.

After the New Kingdom ended in 700 B.C., Egypt went into a decline and was subsequently conquered by the Persians in 525 B.C.

After the New Kingdom ended in 700 B.C., Egypt went into a decline and was subsequently conquered by the Persians in 525 B.C.

Here is a brief review of the famous Egyptian rulers.  The first was Menes (or Mena).  In 3100 B.C. he was already king of southern Upper Egypt, and he united it with northern Lower Egypt (note that lower Egypt is closer to the sea-level of the Mediterranean, north of Upper Egypt, as explained below).  We know his name because Egyptian men, not women, wore make-up and his name was found on palettes used to apply make-up.

Here is a brief review of the famous Egyptian rulers.  The first was Menes (or Mena).  In 3100 B.C. he was already king of southern Upper Egypt, and he united it with northern Lower Egypt (note that lower Egypt is closer to the sea-level of the Mediterranean, north of Upper Egypt, as explained below).  We know his name because Egyptian men, not women, wore make-up and his name was found on palettes used to apply make-up.

Though Menes is called the first “pharaoh” (Egyptian ruler), actually that term was not used until the 18th Dynasty, 1539-1292 B.C.  (Egypt was organized by “dynasties”, where one family (including descendants) controlled the country.)  The term “pharaoh” signifies the Egyptian custom claiming that its ruler was a god, similar to the sky god Horus and the sun gods Re, Amon and Aton.  He was considered to be the preserver of a god-given order, called ma’at.  Even after death the pharaoh supposedly retained divine status and magical powers.  This was a theocracy (rule by a god).

Though Menes is called the first "pharaoh" (Egyptian ruler), actually that term was not used until the 18th Dynasty, 1539-1292 B.C.  (Egypt was organized by "dynasties", where one family (including descendants) controlled the country.)  The term "pharaoh" signifies the Egyptian custom claiming that its ruler was a god, similar to the sky god Horus and the sun gods Re, Amon and Aton.  He was considered to be the preserver of a god-given order, called ma'at.  Even after death the pharaoh supposedly retained divine status and magical powers.  This was a theocracy (rule by a god).

 

The Egyptian people were divided into separate levels or classes.  The highest level consisted of the priests and nobles, and below them were the peasants, and below the peasants were the slaves (which included the Hebrews until Moses led them out in the Exodus).  Women were respected in their role of child-rearing and managing household finances, and there were two Egyptian queens:  Queen Ahhotep and Queen Hatshepsut.  Queen Ahhotep ruled in the Middle Kingdom and helped liberate Egypt from the Hyksos.  Her mummy was discovered in A.D. 1859, and her tomb contained many military artifacts honoring her.  Queen Hatshepsut served in the place of her young boy who was heir to the throne, and she ruled for 15 years until her death in 1458 B.C.  She is known for expanding trade.  Women were also included in the gods (goddesses) that Egyptians worshiped.  More generally, rights of dynasty were inherited through the mother's side, making Egypt a "matriarchal" society.

The most famous pharaoh was Pharaoh Ramses II, who served during the New Kingdom.  Slavery first became widespread during the New Kingdom, probably using Hebrews as slaves.  The Hebrew Exodus occurred under Ramses II, making him the last great pharaoh in the New Kingdom.

The most famous pharaoh was Pharaoh Ramses II, who served during the New Kingdom.  Slavery first became widespread during the New Kingdom, probably using Hebrews as slaves.  The Hebrew Exodus occurred under Ramses II, making him the last great pharaoh in the New Kingdom.

Modern discoveries shed new light on the Egyptian culture.  In A.D. 1922, Howard Carter discovered in the Valley of the Kings the untouched tomb of Tutankhamen, a young pharaoh surrounded by magnificent gold and other artifacts that have been displayed around the world ever since.  Tutankhamen ruled from 1361 to 1352 B.C., and very little is known about his reign.

Modern discoveries shed new light on the Egyptian culture.  In A.D. 1922, Howard Carter discovered in the Valley of the Kings the untouched tomb of Tutankhamen, a young pharaoh surrounded by magnificent gold and other artifacts that have been displayed around the world ever since.  Tutankhamen ruled from 1361 to 1352 B.C., and very little is known about his reign.

Egyptian invented mummification, which began in the 4th Dynasty.  It took the Egyptians a long time to develop this art, but they ultimately succeeded to perfection.  Without going into all the gory details, it consists of removing the internal organs from a body after death, treating the body with resin, and then wrapping it tightly in linen bandages.  You should consider becoming a doctor if you have an interest in this.

Egyptian invented mummification, which began in the 4th Dynasty.  It took the Egyptians a long time to develop this art, but they ultimately succeeded to perfection.  Without going into all the gory details, it consists of removing the internal organs from a body after death, treating the body with resin, and then wrapping it tightly in linen bandages.  You should consider becoming a doctor if you have an interest in this!

Religion: The ancient Egyptians worshiped many gods, often inspired by animals or aspects of nature such as the sun.  Only nobles could aspire to an afterlife, and only the king himself could become unified with Osiris, a legendary king who represented the forces of agriculture.  These religious views could not survive the spread of Islam and Christianity today.  Now Egypt is 90% Sunnite Muslim, and the remainder mostly Christian (Copts).  The Copts trace their ancestors directly to the ancient Egyptians.  Unlike the Muslims in Egypt, who consider themselves Arabs, the Copts do not and still use ancient Egyptian surnames.  They cite the sojourn by Jesus’ family in Egypt to escape Herod, and the proselytizing in Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist, who wrote the Gospel and was martyred at Alexandria, Egypt.  He is considered the first leader of the Coptic Orthodox Church, followed by an unbroken line of 117 successors to the present Pope Shenouda III.  A pharaoh was considered to be a sun god, and eventually monotheism (one all-powerful god) became popular in Egypt, with the sun god Aton commanding all Egyptians’ attention.   

''Religion'': The ancient Egyptians worshiped many gods, often inspired by animals or aspects of nature such as the sun.  Only nobles could aspire to an afterlife, and only the king himself could become unified with Osiris, a legendary king who represented the forces of agriculture.  These religious views could not survive the spread of Islam and Christianity today.  Now Egypt is 90% Sunnite Muslim, and the remainder mostly Christian (Copts).  The Copts trace their ancestors directly to the ancient Egyptians.  Unlike the Muslims in Egypt, who consider themselves Arabs, the Copts do not and still use ancient Egyptian surnames.  They cite the sojourn by Jesus' family in Egypt to escape Herod, and the proselytizing in Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist, who wrote the Gospel and was martyred at Alexandria, Egypt.  He is considered the first leader of the Coptic Orthodox Church, followed by an unbroken line of 117 successors to the present Pope Shenouda III.  A pharaoh was considered to be a sun god, and eventually monotheism (one all-powerful god) became popular in Egypt, with the sun god Aton commanding all Egyptians’ attention.   

Language: The Egyptian developed a written language consisting of hieroglyphics, which are pictographs.  It originated around 3100 B.C.  Papyrus, a thin parchment constructed from reeds near the Nile river, was the “paper”.  Historians could not understand it until the discovery of the “Rosetta Stone” by Napoleon’s troops found in 1799 near the seaside town of Rosetta, located in northern Egypt.  It sits in the British Museum today.  It consists of a slab of black basalt inscribing a royal decree to the king Ptolemy V, dating from 196 B.C.  The Stone is marvelous in inscribing the same message three times: once in Greek, once in Demotic (a simple form of hieroglyphics used 700 B.C. to 400 A.D.), and once in hieroglyphic.  This enabled a French expert in the Greek language, Jean Francois Champollion, to determine what the hieroglyphic characters mean, and build a dictionary that could be used to translate other works written in hieroglyphics.

''Language'': The Egyptians developed a written language consisting of hieroglyphics, which are pictographs.  It originated around 3100 B.C.  Papyrus, a thin parchment constructed from reeds near the Nile river, was the "paper".  Historians could not understand it until the discovery of the "Rosetta Stone" by Napoleon's troops found in 1799 near the seaside town of Rosetta, located in northern Egypt.  It sits in the British Museum today.  It consists of a slab of black basalt inscribing a royal decree to the king Ptolemy V, dating from 196 B.C.  The Stone is marvelous in inscribing the same message three times: once in Greek, once in Demotic (a simple form of hieroglyphics used 700 B.C. to A.D. 400), and once in hieroglyphic.  This enabled a French expert in the Greek language, Jean Francois Champollion, to determine what the hieroglyphic characters mean, and build a dictionary that could be used to translate other works written in hieroglyphics.  Champollion had been a child prodigy in learning numerous languages while still a teenager.

Egypt’s complex, picture-based language probably hindered its growth.  The picture-based language was not as easy to use as the alphabet-based Phoenician language later adopted by the Greeks and Romans.  How would one express Christian concepts like salvation, faith, hope and redemption?  It seems impossible.

Egypt's complex, picture-based language probably hindered its growth.  The picture-based language was not as easy to use as the alphabet-based Phoenician language later adopted by the Greeks and Romans.  How would one express Christian concepts like salvation, faith, hope and redemption?  It seems impossible.

   

   

Science:  A magnificent city named “Alexandria” in 334 B.C. was created by Alexander the Great in Egypt, and it became a cultural center for many centuries in the future.  Eventually it grew to be second only to Rome in size and wealth, but declined over a thousand years later after Islamic conquerors established Cairo as the capital of Egypt.  Alexandria was best known for the Lighthouse of Alexandria, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the Library of Alexandria, which was the largest in the world at that time and reflected the cultural leadership of the city.

''Science'':  A magnificent city named "Alexandria" was created by Alexander the Great in Egypt in 334 B.C., and it became a cultural center for many centuries.  Eventually it grew to be second only to Rome in size and wealth, but declined over a thousand years later after Islamic conquerors established Cairo as the capital of Egypt.  Alexandria was best known for the Lighthouse of Alexandria, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the Library of Alexandria, which was the largest in the world at that time and reflected the cultural leadership of the city.

   

   

In A.D. 100, while Alexandria was still a great city, a future scholar named Ptolemy (pronounced “tah-luh-mee”) (b. A.D. 100, d. A.D. 170) was born there and named after the long line of Egyptian kings.  He wrote magnificent works on astronomy, optics, geography, mechanics and geometry.  He is best known for his complex theory that placed planet Earth at the center of universe, since all things appeared to fall towards Earth and thus towards the center.  The Ptolemaic system was the prevailing view until Copernicus proposed the sun as the center of the solar system over 1000 years later.

In A.D. 100, while Alexandria was still a great city, Ptolemy (pronounced “tah-luh-mee”) was born there and was named after the long line of Egyptian kings.  He wrote magnificent works on astronomy, optics, geography, mechanics and geometry.  He is best known for his complex theory that placed planet Earth at the center of universe, since all things appeared to fall towards Earth and thus towards the center.  The Ptolemaic system was the prevailing view until Copernicus proposed the sun as the center of the solar system over 1000 years later.

Culture: Egypt used slaves as most ancient cultures did.  Women in Egypt had powerful rights, including the right to own property, divorce their husbands, manage businesses and even become priestesses.  It was possible for poor people to rise to the upper class through talent and hard work.  Taxes were a burden.  The government claimed ownership of one-fifth of all produce (Genesis 47:24).  The society had some ethical principles, such as the royal advice that “more acceptable is the character of one upright of heart than the ox of the evildoer.” Feeding the poor, taking care of the disadvantaged, and avoid bribes in administering justice were respected.  The Egyptians learned to travel up and down the Nile River by using the current in one direction, and the Etesian winds to propel sailboats upstream into the other direction.  Egyptian architecture was the pyramid and colonnaded temples like the one Karnak, using a style later copied by the Greeks.  

''Culture'': Egypt used slaves as most ancient cultures did.  Women in Egypt had powerful rights, including the right to own property, divorce their husbands, manage businesses and even become priestesses.  It was possible for poor people to rise to the upper class through talent and hard work.  Taxes were a burden.  The government claimed ownership of one-fifth of all produce (Genesis 47:24).  The society had some ethical principles, such as the royal advice that "more acceptable is the character of one upright of heart than the ox of the evildoer." Feeding the poor, taking care of the disadvantaged, and avoid bribes in administering justice were respected.  The Egyptians learned to travel up and down the Nile River by using the current in one direction, and the Etesian winds to propel sailboats upstream into the other direction.  Egyptian architecture was the pyramid and colonnaded temples like the one Karnak, using a style later copied by the Greeks.  

Trade:  Egypt was not as advanced as Mesopotamia in trade, though trade did improve during the New Kingdom and some commerce with Sumer was established then.

''Trade'':  Egypt was not as advanced as Mesopotamia in trade, though trade did improve during the New Kingdom and some commerce with Sumer was established then.

Inventions:  Egyptians invented our 365-day solar calendar, based on 12 months of about 30 days each.  But Mesopotamia was more advanced than Egypt.  To Mesopotamia we owe our “base 60” system for our clock (60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour).  Egyptians lacked the concept of money, and relied on primitive barter (selling a good in exchange for a different good in return).  The Egyptian Old Kingdom lacked the wheel.

''Inventions'':  Egyptians invented our 365-day solar calendar, based on 12 months of about 30 days each.  But Mesopotamia was more advanced than Egypt.  To Mesopotamia we owe our "base 60" system for our clock (60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour).  Egyptians lacked the concept of money, and relied on primitive barter (selling a good in exchange for a different good in return).  The Egyptian Old Kingdom lacked the wheel; the pyramids were built without use of the wheel!

== References ==

== References ==