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==Israel==

==Israel==

While the Kassites were in control of Babylon, the oldest religion that is still active began: Judaism.  The ancient Hebrews were descendants of Abram (later in his life his name became "Abraham", meaning "father of many"), who lived in Ur around 2000 B.C., and his wife Sarah, through their son Isaac and his son Jacob.  later the name of the ancient Hebrews became known as the "Israelites", once the kingdom of the Hebrews was established with the crowning of King David around 1000 B.C.  But Israel did not remain intact as a nation in the ancient world; after the reigns of King David and his son Solomon it split into two kingdoms, and then was captured and taken into captivity.  Beginning with the terminology in the Book of Esther, which was written between 200 and 300 B.C., the people of the former Israel became known as the "Jewish people," or the "Jews".  Judaism did not exist before Abraham, and it is not known where his ancestors lived in the prior millennium; they could have lived throughout the Middle East, including ancient Egypt.

While the Kassites were in control of Babylon, the oldest religion that is still active today began: Judaism.  The ancient Hebrews were descendants of Abram (later in his life his name became "Abraham", meaning "father of many"), who lived in Ur around 2000 B.C., and his wife Sarah, through their son Isaac and Isaac's son Jacob.  later the name of the ancient Hebrews became known as the "Israelites", once the kingdom of the Hebrews was established with the crowning of King David around 1000 B.C.  But Israel did not remain intact as a nation in the ancient world; after the reigns of King David and his son Solomon it split into two kingdoms, and then was captured and taken into captivity.  Beginning with the terminology in the Book of Esther, which was written between 200 and 300 B.C., the people of the former Israel became known as the "Jewish people," or the "Jews".  Judaism did not exist before Abraham, and it is not known where his ancestors lived in the prior millennium; they could have lived throughout the Middle East, including ancient Egypt.

The timeline is easy to remember:  Jesus (6 B.C. to about A.D. 30) lived half-way between Abraham (2000 B.C.) and today (A.D. 2009).  King David and the founding of Israel was halfway between Abraham and Jesus.

The timeline is easy to remember:  Jesus (6 B.C. to about A.D. 30) lived half-way between Abraham (2000 B.C.) and today (A.D. 2009).  King David and the founding of Israel was halfway between Abraham and Jesus.

The ancient Hebrews who were descended from Jacob migrated away from Ur in Mesopotamia to Palestine, where they resided in about 1500 B.C.  But they migrated over to Egypt to escape a bad famine.  There they generally served as slaves for over 400 years, though they undoubtedly contributed greatly to the intellectual progress of the Egyptian culture.  As described in the Book of Exodus, Moses (who had been adopted by a royal family there) ultimately led 600,000 Hebrews out of Egypt around 1250 B.C.<ref>1250 B.C. is known as the "late date" or estimate for the Exodus; the "early date" or estimate for the Exodus is 1447 B.C.</ref>  Egyptian historians refer to slaves and captives called "Hapiru", but and some doubt that thesewere the Hebrews.  Regardless, the Bible contains many verified references to the Egyptian pharaohs demonstrating that the Jewish ancestors were in Egypt.  The Hebrew escape from Egypt is called the "Exodus", and is described by that book in the Old Testament.  During the passage, Moses received the Ten Commandments from God on Mount Sinai. (In Manhattan today there is a famous medical school on the upper East Side named "Mount Sinai.")  Moses is also credited as being the scribe for the first five books of the Bible (the "Pentateuch" or, in parchment scroll in the Jewish liturgy, the "Torah").

The ancient Hebrews who were descended from Jacob migrated away from Ur in Mesopotamia to Palestine, where they resided in about 1500 B.C.  But they migrated over to Egypt to escape a bad famine.  There they generally served as slaves for over 400 years, though they undoubtedly contributed greatly to the intellectual progress of the Egyptian culture.  As described in the Book of Exodus, Moses (who had been adopted by a royal family there) ultimately led 600,000 Hebrews out of Egypt around 1250 B.C.<ref>1250 B.C. is known as the "late date" or estimate for the Exodus; the "early date" or estimate for the Exodus is 1447 B.C.</ref>  Egyptian historians refer to slaves and captives called "Hapiru", but and some doubt that these were the Hebrews.  Regardless, the Bible contains many verified references to the Egyptian pharaohs demonstrating that the Jewish ancestors were in Egypt.  The Hebrews' escape from Egypt is called the "Exodus", and is described by that book in the Old Testament.  During the passage, Moses received the Ten Commandments from God on Mount Sinai. (In Manhattan today there is a famous medical school on the upper East Side named "Mount Sinai.")  Moses is also credited as being the scribe for the first five books of the Bible (the "Pentateuch" or, in parchment scroll in the Jewish liturgy, the "Torah").

The dates given below are imprecise, and the homework encourages you to improve on them:

The dates given below are imprecise, and the homework encourages you to improve on them:

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While most ancient peoples worshiped many pagan (non-existent) gods, the Hebrews worshiped only one God (but even the Hebrews had false gods – note the Second Commandment).  The Hebrews referred to God as "Yahweh" (or  

While most ancient peoples worshiped many pagan (non-existent) gods, the Hebrews worshiped only one God (but even the Hebrews had false gods – note the Second Commandment).  The Hebrews referred to God as "Yahweh" (or "Jehovah"), and to this day some observant Jewish people consider it improper to write the name of God and instead write "G-d".  "Yahweh" simply means "I am who I am," written in the Hebrew language (which lacks vowels) as YHWH.  ("Yah" by itself means simply, "I am.")  It is the name God instructed Moses use at the encounter at the miraculous burning bush that continued to burn without destruction in Exodus 3:14:  "God said to Moses, 'I AM WHO I AM'; and He said, 'Thus you shall say to the sons of Israel, 'I AM has sent me to you.'"

"Jehovah"), and to this day some observant Jewish people consider it improper to write the name of God and instead write "G-d".  "Yahweh" simply means "I am who I am," written in the Hebrew language (which lacks vowels) as YHWH.  ("Yah" by itself means simply, "I am.")  It is the name God instructed Moses use at the encounter at the miraculous burning bush that continued to burn without destruction in Exodus 3:14:  "God said to Moses, 'I AM WHO I AM'; and He said, 'Thus you shall say to the sons of Israel, 'I AM has sent me to you.'"

It remains a mystery as to precisely when the books of the Old Testament were written, but here are some estimates for several of the most prominent books:

It remains a mystery as to precisely when the books of the Old Testament were written, but here are some estimates for several of the most prominent books:

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After leaving Egypt, the Hebrews settled back in the hills of Palestine or Canaan along eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, approximately where Israel is today.  They quickly developed a productive society despite the barrenness of the land.  They implemented a system of private property, which much sharing within the family structure.  Before long, they became targets for their less sophisticated and pagan neighbors.  Worst among these were the Philistines, who had iron weapons and good organization.  The Hebrews, in contrast, were loosely affiliated and unprepared to defend against outside invasions.  The Bible recounts many of these struggles with the Philistines, which Hebrews interpreted as God's punishment for their disobedience.

After leaving Egypt, the Hebrews settled back in the hills of Palestine or Canaan along eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, approximately where Israel is today.  They quickly developed a productive society despite the barrenness of the land.  They implemented a system of private property, which much sharing within the family structure.  Before long, they became targets for their less sophisticated and pagan neighbors.  Worst among these were the Philistines, who had iron weapons and good organization.  The Hebrews, in contrast, were loosely affiliated and unprepared to defend against outside invasions.  The Bible recounts many of these struggles with the Philistines, which God used to punish the Hebrews for disobedience and bring them back to him.

Inevitably a Hebrew warrior, Saul, took power around 1000 B.C. and defeated the Philistines and Canaanites.  The priest Samuel anointed Saul king, but many Hebrews declined to obey him.  David, a shrewd fighter who had trained as a mercenary with the Philistines, became famous as a teenager for defeating the Philistine giant Goliath as described in the Bible.  David then built an empire for Israel that extended from Damascus, then a thriving city in the Fertile Crescent, all the way south past what is now the Gaza Strip.  For its capital he built a hill city called Jerusalem, and encapsulated it within a wall.  II Samuel 9-20 describes this period.

Inevitably a Hebrew warrior, Saul, took power around 1000 B.C. and defeated the Philistines and Canaanites.  The priest Samuel anointed Saul king, but many Hebrews declined to obey him.  David, a shrewd fighter who had trained as a mercenary with the Philistines, became famous as a teenager for defeating the Philistine giant Goliath as described in the Bible.  David then built an empire for Israel that extended from Damascus, then a thriving city in the Fertile Crescent, all the way south past what is now the Gaza Strip.  For its capital he built a hill city called Jerusalem, and encapsulated it within a wall.  II Samuel 9-20 describes this period.

David's son was Solomon, who ruled for forty years (965-925 B.C.) and constructed the great temple of Jerusalem.  He was known for his wisdom and justice.  He created two states: Israel in the north, with a capital at Samaria, and Judah in the south, with a capital at Jerusalem.  But Solomon also taxed the Hebrews heavily and, after he died, the empire fell into decline.  The Kingdom of Israel split after the death of Solomon.  I Kings 12.

David's son was Solomon, who ruled for forty years (965-925 B.C.) and constructed the great temple of Jerusalem.  He was known for his wisdom and justice.  He created two states: Israel in the north, with a capital at Samaria, and Judah in the south, with a capital at Jerusalem.  But Solomon also taxed the Hebrews heavily and, after he died, the empire fell into decline.  The Kingdom of Israel split after the death of Solomon.  I Kings 12.

[[Image:Twelve Tribes of Israel.JPG|right]]

[[Image:Twelve Tribes of Israel.JPG|right]]

Judah in the south survived longer than Israel in the north.  The southern Kingdom of Judah consisted of two of the twelve Hebrew tribes, while the northern Kingdom of Israel had the other ten Hebrew tribes.  But due to its northern location, the Kingdom of Israel had to contend with Assyria, which was cruel and extremely powerful kingdom of northern Mesopotamia.  It was located in present-day northern Iraq and at times controlled the northern part of present-day Syria.  Assyria became an independent state in the 14th century B.C., expanded in the 9th century B.C. and, under powerful kings like Sargon II, united most of the Middle East from Egypt to the Persian Gulf under Assyrian rule.  It was finally destroyed by a Chaldean-Median coalition in 612-609 B.C.

Judah in the south survived longer than Israel in the north.  The southern Kingdom of Judah consisted of two of the twelve Hebrew tribes, while the northern Kingdom of Israel had the other ten Hebrew tribes.  But due to its northern location, the Kingdom of Israel had to contend with Assyria, which was a cruel and extremely powerful kingdom of northern Mesopotamia.  It was located in present-day northern Iraq and at times controlled the northern part of present-day Syria.  Assyria became an independent state in the 14th century B.C., expanded in the 9th century B.C. and, under powerful kings like Sargon II, united most of the Middle East from Egypt to the Persian Gulf under Assyrian rule.  It was finally destroyed by a Chaldean-Median coalition in 612-609 B.C.

The Assyrians defeated the Kingdom of Israel in 772 B.C, and then scattered and dispersed its ten Hebrew tribes throughout the Assyrian Kingdom.  The Assyrian empire was so powerful because it is used iron weapons along with battering rams, and did not hesitate even to tunnel under enemies' walls.  The Assyrians also enslaved the peoples it captured, taking them away from their homeland.  The scattering of the Hebrews by the Assyrians was the first of several "diaspora" (pronounced deye-AS-puh-ruh), which means the scattering of the Jewish people away from their homeland.  In Judah, however, a young ruler known as Joshua ultimately rose to power in 640 B.C. and overthrew the Assyrian influence, which was in a state of decline then.  But Judah himself ran into the merciless power of the Chaldean empire.

The Assyrians defeated the Kingdom of Israel in 772 B.C, and then scattered and dispersed the ten Hebrew tribes throughout the Assyrian Kingdom.  The Assyrian empire was so powerful because it used iron weapons and battering rams, and did not hesitate even to tunnel under enemies' walls.  The Assyrians also enslaved the peoples it captured, taking them away from their homeland.  The scattering of the Hebrews by the Assyrians was the first of several "diaspora" (pronounced deye-AS-puh-ruh), which means the scattering of the Jewish people away from their homeland.  In Judah, however, a young ruler known as Joshua ultimately rose to power in 640 B.C. and overthrew the Assyrian influence, which was in a state of decline then.  But Joshua himself ran into the merciless power of the Chaldean empire.

The Chaldean empire defeated both the Hebrews and the Assyrians.  Chaldea was the region in southern Babylonia, covering what is now southern Iraq.  This land borders the coast of the Persian Gulf between the Euphrates delta and the Arabian desert.

The Chaldean empire defeated both the Hebrews and the Assyrians.  Chaldea was the region in southern Babylonia, covering what is now southern Iraq.  This land borders the coast of the Persian Gulf between the Euphrates delta and the Arabian desert.

As Assyrian power began to decline, a ruler named Nabopolassar was able to establish a Chaldean dynasty, beginning in 625 B.C. and extending until the Persians conquered the territory by invading in 539 B.C. from present-day Iran. In that brief span of time an important ruler commanded the Chaldean dynasty and all of Babylonian empire: Nebuchadnezzar II (NEB-uh-kuhd-NEZ-ur), who reigned from 605 to 562 B.C.

As Assyrian power began to decline, a ruler named Nabopolassar was able to establish a Chaldean dynasty, beginning in 625 B.C. and extending until the Persians conquered the territory by invading in 539 B.C. from present-day Iran. In that brief span of time an important ruler commanded the Chaldean dynasty and all of Babylonian empire: Nebuchadnezzar II (NEB-uh-kuhd-NEZ-ur), who reigned from 605 to 562 B.C.

He was a military genius who demonstrated his prowess with a massive conquest of the Egyptian army in 606 or 605 B.C., thereby gaining control of all of Syria. After his father's death, he obtained the submission of Judah and spent the next few years expanding the Babylonian empire into Palestine. Although suffering losses, he persisted and ultimately captured Jerusalem on March 16, 597, and then later again in 586, when the Chaldeans also destroyed Solomon's temple.  Nebuchadnezzar kidnapped and deported prominent Hebrews back to Babylonia, as recounted in the Bible and known as the Babylonian Exile.  Nebuchadnezzar was a godless military commander who suffered from seven years of madness, but at times he protected key prophets like Jeremiah.  Daniel describes seven years of madness for the ruler, but the Babylonian people did not dare criticize their own ruler.  Daniel 4:34-37.

He was a military genius who demonstrated his prowess with a massive conquest of the Egyptian army in 606 or 605 B.C., thereby gaining control of all of Syria. After his father's death, he obtained the submission of Judah and spent the next few years expanding the Babylonian empire into Palestine. Although Nebuchadnezzar suffered many losses, he persisted and ultimately captured Jerusalem on March 16, 597, and then later again in 586, when the Chaldeans also destroyed Solomon's temple.  Nebuchadnezzar kidnapped and deported prominent Hebrews back to Babylonia, as recounted in the Bible and known as the Babylonian Exile.  Nebuchadnezzar was a godless military commander who suffered from seven years of madness, but at times he protected key prophets like Jeremiah.  Daniel describes seven years of madness for the ruler, but the Babylonian people did not dare criticize their own ruler.  Daniel 4:34-37.

Babylon was a culture that did not have the value system of the Hebrews, and Babylonians did not accept God.  The Babylonians were constantly raiding, kidnapping, killing or converting into slaves the Hebrews.  Much of the Old Testament is about how the Hebrews would gain or lose favor with the Lord, and the Babylonians would prevail against the Hebrews as they lost favor with the Lord.  "Babylon" is mentioned 246 times in the Old Testament!

Babylon was a culture that did not have the value system of the Hebrews, and Babylonians did not accept God.  The Babylonians were constantly raiding, kidnapping, killing or converting the Hebrews into slaves.  Much of the Old Testament is about how the Hebrews would gain or lose favor with the Lord, and the Babylonians would prevail against the Hebrews as they lost favor with the Lord.  "Babylon" is mentioned 246 times in the Old Testament!

Because he captured and exiled the Hebrews, King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon is mentioned frequently in the Old Testament.  During his second invasion of Jerusalem, the city that had been previously established as the Hebrew center by David in 1000 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the holy Temple built by King Solomon ("Solomon's Temple").  Nebuchadnezzar then captured the Jewish people and took them back to Babylon in what is known as the Babylonian Exile or Captivity, which lasted from 597 to 538 B.C. (beginning with his first invasion of Jerusalem).  "But because our ancestors had angered the God of heaven, he gave them into the hand of King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, the Chaldean, who destroyed this house and carried away the people to Babylonia."  Ezra 5:12.

Because he captured and exiled the Hebrews, King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon is mentioned frequently in the Old Testament.  During his second invasion of Jerusalem, the city that had been previously established as the Hebrew center by David in 1000 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the holy Temple built by King Solomon ("Solomon's Temple").  Nebuchadnezzar then captured the Jewish people and took them back to Babylon in what is known as the Babylonian Exile or Captivity, which lasted from 597 to 538 B.C. (beginning with his first invasion of Jerusalem).  "But because our ancestors had angered the God of heaven, he gave them into the hand of King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, the Chaldean, who destroyed this house and carried away the people to Babylonia."  Ezra 5:12.

The death of Nebuchadnezzar II signaled the end of the Babylonian empire, which then fell into decline.  It was inevitable that Babylon itself would be conquered.  Cyrus the Great was the King of Persia (the ancient name for Iran) (539-530 B.C.), who conquered Asia Minor for the Persians, including the territories of Assyria, Babylonia, Palestine and Syria.  His kingdom was known as the Achaemenid (ə-kē'mə-nĭd) (or Persian) empire.  He freed the Hebrews and ended the Babylonian Exile, allowing the Jewish people to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their Temple.  The tomb of Cyrus the Great still exists at Pasargadae, the town that was the capital of his empire but which is now in ruins in present-day Iran.   

The death of Nebuchadnezzar II signaled the end of the Babylonian empire, which then fell into decline.  It was inevitable that Babylon itself would be conquered.  Cyrus the Great was the King of Persia (the ancient name for Iran) (539-530 B.C.), who conquered Asia Minor for the Persians, including the territories of Assyria, Babylonia, Palestine and Syria.  His kingdom was known as the Achaemenid (ə-kē'mə-nĭd) (or Persian) empire.  He freed the Hebrews and ended the Babylonian Exile, allowing the Jewish people to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their Temple.  The tomb of Cyrus the Great still exists at Pasargadae, the town that was the capital of his empire but which is now in ruins in present-day Iran.   

More than a thousand years later, during the Islamic conquest of Iran, the Muslims planned to destroy this tomb because it is contrary to their religion.  However, the possibility that the tomb was somehow built to honor the mother of King Solomon, a respected prophet in Islam, justified preserving the tomb to this day, and it is inscribed today with the following verse of the Qur'an (Koran): "Qabr-e Madar-e Sulaiman."

More than a thousand years later, during the Islamic conquest of Iran, the Muslims planned to destroy this tomb because it is contrary to their religion.  However, the possibility that the tomb was somehow built to honor the mother of King Solomon, a respected prophet in Islam, justified preserving the tomb to this day, and it is inscribed today with the following verse of the Qur'an (Koran): "Qabr-e Madar-e Sulaiman" which means the tomb of the mother of Solomon.

The Hebrews rebuilt the Jerusalem walls and the temple, but did not restore the magnificence it had under Solomon.  The Hebrews remained under Persian rule until Alexander the Great conquered the Persians around 330 B.C.  Later, when the Roman Empire rose to power, Palestine became a province to Rome, until Palestine rebelled and Rome retaliated by destroying the temple in A.D. 70, again dispersing the Jewish people to distant lands.

The Hebrews rebuilt Jerusalem's walls and temple, but did not restore the magnificence the city had under Solomon.  The Hebrews remained under Persian rule until Alexander the Great conquered the Persians around 330 B.C.  Later, when the Roman Empire rose to power, Palestine became a province to Rome, until Palestine rebelled and Rome retaliated by destroying the temple in A.D. 70, again dispersing the Jewish people to distant lands.

''To what do we owe the ancient Hebrews?''  The concept of monotheism: one and only one God.  The Hebrews established the covenant of loyalty between God and his chosen ones.  Part of the covenant was the promise of a future Messiah to save the people from their sins, and Jewish people debate today whether the Messiah was supposed to establish a kingdom on earth.  Later some Jewish people accepted Jesus as the Messiah, while some did not.  The moral code by which the Hebrew people promised to live was set forth in the Ten Commandments, which were carved in stone and kept in the sacred Ark of the Covenant as described repeatedly in the Bible (see, e.g., Exodus 25:9-10).  Highly specific requirements of daily life are also set forth in the Torah (the Pentateuch, or first five books of the Old Testament).  The authorities on Jewish law are known as "rabbis", but there is no single, centralized religious authority on Judaism like a pope.  Next to the Bible, the next most authoritative Jewish work is the Talmud, which is a collection of writings by rabbis.

''To what do we owe the ancient Hebrews?''  The concept of monotheism: one and only one God.  The Hebrews established the covenant of loyalty between God and his chosen ones.  Part of the covenant was the promise of a future Messiah to save the people from their sins, and Jewish people debate today whether the Messiah was supposed to establish a kingdom on earth.  Later some Jewish people accepted Jesus as the Messiah, while some did not.  The moral code by which the Hebrew people strove to live was set forth in the Ten Commandments, which were carved in stone and kept in the sacred Ark of the Covenant as described repeatedly in the Bible (see, e.g., Exodus 25:9-10).  Highly specific requirements of daily life are also set forth in the Torah (the Pentateuch, or first five books of the Old Testament).  The authorities on Jewish law are known as "rabbis", but there is no single, centralized religious authority on Judaism like a pope.  Next to the Bible, the next most authoritative Jewish work is the Talmud, which is a collection of writings by rabbis.

==Egypt==

==Egypt==