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World History – Cold War and Independence

World History – Cold War and Independence

<br>Thirteenth Lecture

 

<br>Instructor, Andy Schlafly

Thirteenth Lecture

 

Instructor, [[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]]

'''Outline of Lecture:'''

'''Outline of Lecture:'''

<br>I. Latin America

<br>I. Latin America

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'''I. Introduction'''

== I. Introduction ==

The middle of the 20th century, after World War II, saw many regional conflicts resulting from the Cold War between freedom in the United States and communism and the Soviet Union.  Eventually freedom prevailed, but there is much history to be learned about how it prevailed.  Also, there were many independence movements in the 20th century, some of which had nothing to do with the global struggle between freedom and communism.

The middle of the 20th century, after World War II, saw many regional conflicts resulting from the Cold War between freedom in the United States and communism and the Soviet Union.  Eventually freedom prevailed, but there is much history to be learned about how it prevailed.  Also, there were many independence movements in the 20th century, some of which had nothing to do with the global struggle between freedom and communism.

But the news is not all good.  America triumphed in many ways in the world, but she has many enemies outside of her borders, and quite a few within.  Ask yourself in which direction you think the world is headed:  towards a better place, or a worse one?

But the news is not all good.  America triumphed in many ways in the world, but she has many enemies outside of her borders, and quite a few within.  Ask yourself in which direction you think the world is headed:  towards a better place, or a worse one?

   

   

'''II. Regional Conflicts in the Cold War'''

== II. Regional Conflicts in the Cold War ==

'''A. Vietnam'''

=== A. Vietnam ===

Americans feared a “domino effect” of communism.  Imagine a row of dominos, and what happens when one falls into another, and then into another, and so one.  Each falling domino can knock over the one next to it.  Americans starting with President Dwight Eisenhower feared that effect when communism took over a nation:  all nearby nations could next fall to the same communism.

Americans feared a “domino effect” of communism.  Imagine a row of dominos, and what happens when one falls into another, and then into another, and so one.  Each falling domino can knock over the one next to it.  Americans starting with President Dwight Eisenhower feared that effect when communism took over a nation:  all nearby nations could next fall to the same communism.

Things worsened further in next-door Cambodia after the Americans left Vietnam.  Pol Pot took over Cambodia in 1975, and he abolished private property, money and religion and converted everything back to an agricultural society.  He emptied the cities.  His ruthless policies supposedly resulted in the death of 1-2 million Cambodians in the late 1970s.  The Hollywood movie about his dictatorship, The Killing Fields, exposed his atrocities and perhaps exaggerated them as a way of blaming the United States, which once supported him to counter Vietnam.  Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge government fell in 1979 when Vietnam invaded Cambodia after a series of violent border confrontations, and Pol Pot fled to the northern jungle with his forces.  He died from illness in 1998.  Today there are United Nations peacekeeping forces in Cambodia.

Things worsened further in next-door Cambodia after the Americans left Vietnam.  Pol Pot took over Cambodia in 1975, and he abolished private property, money and religion and converted everything back to an agricultural society.  He emptied the cities.  His ruthless policies supposedly resulted in the death of 1-2 million Cambodians in the late 1970s.  The Hollywood movie about his dictatorship, The Killing Fields, exposed his atrocities and perhaps exaggerated them as a way of blaming the United States, which once supported him to counter Vietnam.  Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge government fell in 1979 when Vietnam invaded Cambodia after a series of violent border confrontations, and Pol Pot fled to the northern jungle with his forces.  He died from illness in 1998.  Today there are United Nations peacekeeping forces in Cambodia.

'''B. Latin America'''

===B. Latin America ===

In connection with the “Third World” of Latin America, Africa and many parts of Asia, the Cold War became a battle for influence over the system of government adopted by any and every small country.  It seemed like there were only two choices:  communist or free (capitalist).  Both the United States and Soviet Union would compete with each other to provide to developing nations aid, military advisors, social workers (e.g., the Peace Corps from the United States), educational programs and technology.

In connection with the “Third World” of Latin America, Africa and many parts of Asia, the Cold War became a battle for influence over the system of government adopted by any and every small country.  It seemed like there were only two choices:  communist or free (capitalist).  Both the United States and Soviet Union would compete with each other to provide to developing nations aid, military advisors, social workers (e.g., the Peace Corps from the United States), educational programs and technology.

Poverty alone cannot explain the popularity of communism. In oil-rich Venezuela, the people reelected the communist Hugo Chavez in December 2006, and he is exporting communism to other nations there.  Young and intimidating, Chavez is described as a Castro with money.

Poverty alone cannot explain the popularity of communism. In oil-rich Venezuela, the people reelected the communist Hugo Chavez in December 2006, and he is exporting communism to other nations there.  Young and intimidating, Chavez is described as a Castro with money.

'''C. Middle East (Southwest Asia)'''

=== C. Middle East (Southwest Asia) ===

The Cold War did not explain every conflict in the 20th century.  For example, the Cold War did not explain the conflicts in the Middle East (Southwest Asia), where Islam is the dominant force.  The United States helped build oil wells in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries, but the Shiite Muslims disapprove of the American presence.   

The Cold War did not explain every conflict in the 20th century.  For example, the Cold War did not explain the conflicts in the Middle East (Southwest Asia), where Islam is the dominant force.  The United States helped build oil wells in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries, but the Shiite Muslims disapprove of the American presence.   

In 1979, Muslims in Afghanistan (in South Asia) revolted against the Soviet-friendly communist government there.  The Soviets responded by invading Afghanistan and attempting to suppress the revolution.  The United States reacted to this Soviet invasion by boycotting the summer Olympic Games in Moscow and providing arms to the Afghan rebels.  The Soviets struggled for a decade in Afghanistan, much as the United States had struggled in Vietnam, and the Soviets eventually withdrew from the country.  In many ways Islam is a more powerful ideology than communism, and Islam defeated communism in Afghanistan.

In 1979, Muslims in Afghanistan (in South Asia) revolted against the Soviet-friendly communist government there.  The Soviets responded by invading Afghanistan and attempting to suppress the revolution.  The United States reacted to this Soviet invasion by boycotting the summer Olympic Games in Moscow and providing arms to the Afghan rebels.  The Soviets struggled for a decade in Afghanistan, much as the United States had struggled in Vietnam, and the Soviets eventually withdrew from the country.  In many ways Islam is a more powerful ideology than communism, and Islam defeated communism in Afghanistan.

'''D. Eastern Europe'''

=== D. Eastern Europe ===

Stalin died in 1953, and Nikita Khruschev replaced him as the dictator over the Soviet Union.  Khruschev was an aggressive leader who had brutally carried out Stalin’s policies while Stalin was alive, but then denounced Stalin as soon as he died and tried to purge all memory of Stalin (“destalinization”).  However, Khruschev was nearly as bad as Stalin was.  Khruschev viciously repressed a freedom movement in Hungary in October 1956.  He ordered an invasion with Soviet tanks and arranged for the execution of the Hungarian leader Imre Nagy, who sought to hold free elections.  Khruschev replaced him with a pro-Soviet puppet.  Thousands of Hungarian “freedom fighters” were slaughtered by the Soviets, and the Hungarian religious leader Joseph Cardinal Mindszenty had to flee to the United States embassy to survive.  The communist dictatorship installed by the Soviets prevented him from stepping foot outside of the embassy for the next 15 years.  Imagine never once leaving your home for 15 years!

Stalin died in 1953, and Nikita Khruschev replaced him as the dictator over the Soviet Union.  Khruschev was an aggressive leader who had brutally carried out Stalin’s policies while Stalin was alive, but then denounced Stalin as soon as he died and tried to purge all memory of Stalin (“destalinization”).  However, Khruschev was nearly as bad as Stalin was.  Khruschev viciously repressed a freedom movement in Hungary in October 1956.  He ordered an invasion with Soviet tanks and arranged for the execution of the Hungarian leader Imre Nagy, who sought to hold free elections.  Khruschev replaced him with a pro-Soviet puppet.  Thousands of Hungarian “freedom fighters” were slaughtered by the Soviets, and the Hungarian religious leader Joseph Cardinal Mindszenty had to flee to the United States embassy to survive.  The communist dictatorship installed by the Soviets prevented him from stepping foot outside of the embassy for the next 15 years.  Imagine never once leaving your home for 15 years!

Brezhnev ruled as brutally as Khruschev had, though with less personal confrontation.  When Czechoslovakian leader Alexander Dubcek allowed greater freedom of speech in his country in 1968, the Soviets responded by invading with tanks just as they had in Hungary over a decade earlier.

Brezhnev ruled as brutally as Khruschev had, though with less personal confrontation.  When Czechoslovakian leader Alexander Dubcek allowed greater freedom of speech in his country in 1968, the Soviets responded by invading with tanks just as they had in Hungary over a decade earlier.

'''E. Détente'''

=== E. Détente ===

President Nixon sought to take advantage of the icy relationship between the Soviet Union and China, and also to open up China to American businessmen.  Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai began to end China’s isolation from the rest of the world by inviting a U.S. table tennis team to tour China in 1971.  President Nixon then stunned the world and his conservative supporters by supporting membership in the United Nations for Communist China (the “People’s Republic of China”).

President Nixon sought to take advantage of the icy relationship between the Soviet Union and China, and also to open up China to American businessmen.  Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai began to end China’s isolation from the rest of the world by inviting a U.S. table tennis team to tour China in 1971.  President Nixon then stunned the world and his conservative supporters by supporting membership in the United Nations for Communist China (the “People’s Republic of China”).

President Jimmy Carter continued the trend by signing SALT II in 1979, which would have provided for further reductions.  In a victory for conservatives, the U.S. Senate refused to ratify that treaty.  At one point, President Carter told the American people that his young daughter was upset about the growing problem of nuclear proliferation, by which many other nations such as India and Pakistan acquired atomic bombs.  This comment by Carter, like much of his presidency, was ridiculed by the public.

President Jimmy Carter continued the trend by signing SALT II in 1979, which would have provided for further reductions.  In a victory for conservatives, the U.S. Senate refused to ratify that treaty.  At one point, President Carter told the American people that his young daughter was upset about the growing problem of nuclear proliferation, by which many other nations such as India and Pakistan acquired atomic bombs.  This comment by Carter, like much of his presidency, was ridiculed by the public.

'''F. SDI'''

=== F. SDI ===

In November 1980, the first modern conservative was elected president of the United States:  Ronald Reagan.  For the next 25 years the influence of him and those who supported him is still being felt.  President Reagan cut taxes and defeated communism.  He also had the most original and influential idea of any president in American history:  the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), known by its critics as “Star Wars.”

In November 1980, the first modern conservative was elected president of the United States:  Ronald Reagan.  For the next 25 years the influence of him and those who supported him is still being felt.  President Reagan cut taxes and defeated communism.  He also had the most original and influential idea of any president in American history:  the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), known by its critics as “Star Wars.”

His critics, including most scientists, ridiculed SDI as impossible and dangerous.  But those criticisms contradicted each other, and it was precisely because SDI might be possible that it was so influential.  The Soviet Union, then led by Mikhail Gorbachev, panicked.  Gorbachev met with Reagan at a summit in Reykjavik, Iceland in 1986 in which Gorbachev promised almost anything if Reagan would agree to drop SDI.  The media pressure was intense for Reagan to agree.  But Reagan stood up for America, and he said “no deal.”  The next year Reagan made a trip to the Berlin Wall, against the recommendation of his advisors, and declared to the world, “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!”  Two years later the Germans did exactly that, and tore down the Berlin Wall built by the communists.  Although Reagan and Gorbachev did sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in 1987, which banned missiles with ranges of 300 to 3,400 miles, the historic decision was Reagan’s refusal to sign a treaty at Reykjavik giving up SDI.  Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union would soon be vanquished.

His critics, including most scientists, ridiculed SDI as impossible and dangerous.  But those criticisms contradicted each other, and it was precisely because SDI might be possible that it was so influential.  The Soviet Union, then led by Mikhail Gorbachev, panicked.  Gorbachev met with Reagan at a summit in Reykjavik, Iceland in 1986 in which Gorbachev promised almost anything if Reagan would agree to drop SDI.  The media pressure was intense for Reagan to agree.  But Reagan stood up for America, and he said “no deal.”  The next year Reagan made a trip to the Berlin Wall, against the recommendation of his advisors, and declared to the world, “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!”  Two years later the Germans did exactly that, and tore down the Berlin Wall built by the communists.  Although Reagan and Gorbachev did sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in 1987, which banned missiles with ranges of 300 to 3,400 miles, the historic decision was Reagan’s refusal to sign a treaty at Reykjavik giving up SDI.  Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union would soon be vanquished.

'''III. Independence Movements in the 20th Century'''

== III. Independence Movements in the 20th Century ==

For most of the population in the world, the history of the 20th century can be summed up in one word:  independence.  That is true for India (about 1 billion people), Indonesia (215 million), much of Africa (890 million), Israel, Eastern Europe.  China (1 billion) and Latin America (523 million) already had independence before the 20th century, but still had nationalistic movements during the 20th century.

For most of the population in the world, the history of the 20th century can be summed up in one word:  independence.  That is true for India (about 1 billion people), Indonesia (215 million), much of Africa (890 million), Israel, Eastern Europe.  China (1 billion) and Latin America (523 million) already had independence before the 20th century, but still had nationalistic movements during the 20th century.

'''A. South Asia'''

=== A. South Asia ===

Both Hindus and Muslims sought independence in South Asia, which now consists of India and the surrounding countries of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Afghanistan.  Many of those countries did not exist at the time of World War II.  The “Indian subcontinent” consists primarily of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh today.

Both Hindus and Muslims sought independence in South Asia, which now consists of India and the surrounding countries of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Afghanistan.  Many of those countries did not exist at the time of World War II.  The “Indian subcontinent” consists primarily of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh today.

West Pakistan then became Pakistan.  In 1999, General Pervez Musharraf seized power by overthrowing Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif.  Before him, Benazir Bhutto was the woman prime minister who ran the country, even though it is Muslim.  Pakistan is one of the few Islamic nation’s possessing the atomic bomb, which it developed in the 21st century, much to the consternation of the rest of the world.

West Pakistan then became Pakistan.  In 1999, General Pervez Musharraf seized power by overthrowing Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif.  Before him, Benazir Bhutto was the woman prime minister who ran the country, even though it is Muslim.  Pakistan is one of the few Islamic nation’s possessing the atomic bomb, which it developed in the 21st century, much to the consternation of the rest of the world.

'''B. Southeast Asia'''

=== B. Southeast Asia ===

When India and Pakistan sought and obtained independence from the British, other British and Dutch colonies in Asia expected similar independence.  In Southeast Asia, Burma gained independence in 1948 and chose not to be a member of the British Commonwealth.  It then suffered from some internal conflicts between communists and military dictators.  In 1989, Burma renamed itself Myanmar.

When India and Pakistan sought and obtained independence from the British, other British and Dutch colonies in Asia expected similar independence.  In Southeast Asia, Burma gained independence in 1948 and chose not to be a member of the British Commonwealth.  It then suffered from some internal conflicts between communists and military dictators.  In 1989, Burma renamed itself Myanmar.

Corazon Aquino was succeeded in the Philippines by Fidel Ramos in 1992, but term limits of one term prevented him from serving beyond a single six-year term.

Corazon Aquino was succeeded in the Philippines by Fidel Ramos in 1992, but term limits of one term prevented him from serving beyond a single six-year term.

'''C. Africa'''

=== C. Africa ===

Five European powers – Great Britain, Belgium, France, Portugal, and the Netherlands – had divided Africa into colonies during the Imperialism Era.  Their divisions showed no regard for ethnic groups and local culture.  Europeans created huge farms that could be more profitable for the mother country, such as cash-crop plantations.  When it came time for the Europeans to leave, the African economy lacked self-sufficiency.

Five European powers – Great Britain, Belgium, France, Portugal, and the Netherlands – had divided Africa into colonies during the Imperialism Era.  Their divisions showed no regard for ethnic groups and local culture.  Europeans created huge farms that could be more profitable for the mother country, such as cash-crop plantations.  When it came time for the Europeans to leave, the African economy lacked self-sufficiency.

There was a middle class in Africa.  Many Africans were educated in the Western world, and they led a pro-African or pan-African movement called “Negritude”.  This built pride in African culture and accomplishments.

There was a middle class in Africa.  Many Africans were educated in the Western world, and they led a pro-African or pan-African movement called “Negritude”.  This built pride in African culture and accomplishments.

'''British Colonies – Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana'''

==== British Colonies – Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana ====

Great Britain had three large African colonies:  Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana.  Nigeria was most populous colony in Africa and one of the most prosperous, and it won its independence in 1960.  But its ethnic diversity led to civil war between the Muslim Hausa-Fulani and the Christian (and animist) Igbo and Yoruba.  There was tension even within the Christian groups, as Igbo preferred a democratic society while the Yoruba preferred a monarchy.

Great Britain had three large African colonies:  Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana.  Nigeria was most populous colony in Africa and one of the most prosperous, and it won its independence in 1960.  But its ethnic diversity led to civil war between the Muslim Hausa-Fulani and the Christian (and animist) Igbo and Yoruba.  There was tension even within the Christian groups, as Igbo preferred a democratic society while the Yoruba preferred a monarchy.

The British Colony of the Gold Coast (Ghana) was the first of all these to achieve independence.  Kwame Nkrumah was helped by the communists and by his education in the United States.  He spent money on improving roads and education and health care, but the economy failed as a result.  He was also a leader establishing the Pan-African Congress in 1945 with the help of Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey.  The goal of this organization, along with the Organization of African Unity (OAU) (founded in 1963), was to establish an Africa ruled by Africans.  But in 1966 the Ghana military revolted against Nkrumah while he was away in China, presumably on a mission to obtain more communist aid.  Power has frequently changed hands in Ghana ever since, and at two points (1979 and 1981) a Ghana Air Force pilot named Jerry Rawlings served as president.

The British Colony of the Gold Coast (Ghana) was the first of all these to achieve independence.  Kwame Nkrumah was helped by the communists and by his education in the United States.  He spent money on improving roads and education and health care, but the economy failed as a result.  He was also a leader establishing the Pan-African Congress in 1945 with the help of Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey.  The goal of this organization, along with the Organization of African Unity (OAU) (founded in 1963), was to establish an Africa ruled by Africans.  But in 1966 the Ghana military revolted against Nkrumah while he was away in China, presumably on a mission to obtain more communist aid.  Power has frequently changed hands in Ghana ever since, and at two points (1979 and 1981) a Ghana Air Force pilot named Jerry Rawlings served as president.

'''French colony – Algeria'''

==== French colony – Algeria ====

France had many small colonies in Africa, including Morocco and Tunisia, to which France granted independence in 1956.  But France’s primary colony was Algeria, a Muslim country in North Africa.  Instead of granting it independence, France offered citizenship to all the Algerians, which partly explains why the Muslim population in France is so large today.

France had many small colonies in Africa, including Morocco and Tunisia, to which France granted independence in 1956.  But France’s primary colony was Algeria, a Muslim country in North Africa.  Instead of granting it independence, France offered citizenship to all the Algerians, which partly explains why the Muslim population in France is so large today.

In 1958, Charles de Gaulle successfully returned to power in France, after having led France during World War II.  He feared an Algerian rebellion, and favored granting independence to it and others.  France officially granted Algeria independence in 1962, and Ahmed Ben Bella became its first prime minister.  In 1965, Ben Bella was deposed (overthrown).  A fully Islamic government took control in 1985 due in part to a drop in the price of oil, which caused a crisis in the Algerian economy.

In 1958, Charles de Gaulle successfully returned to power in France, after having led France during World War II.  He feared an Algerian rebellion, and favored granting independence to it and others.  France officially granted Algeria independence in 1962, and Ahmed Ben Bella became its first prime minister.  In 1965, Ben Bella was deposed (overthrown).  A fully Islamic government took control in 1985 due in part to a drop in the price of oil, which caused a crisis in the Algerian economy.

'''Belgium colony - Congo'''

==== Belgium colony - Congo ====

Belgium held the Congo as an African colony for mining copper and producing rubber.  When Belgium granted Congo its independence in 1960 and Patrice Lumumba was sworn in its its first prime minister, the young nation was unprepared.  Moise Tshombe, a leader of southeast region that had the copper mines, announced its separate independence.  Tshombe was backed by Belgians interested in the copper, while Lumumba was supported by the communist Soviet Union.  Joseph Mobutu, with sympathy by the West, then overthrew Lumumba, who was then murdered.  Tshombe ruled for a short period until he, too, was overthrown by Mobutu.

Belgium held the Congo as an African colony for mining copper and producing rubber.  When Belgium granted Congo its independence in 1960 and Patrice Lumumba was sworn in its its first prime minister, the young nation was unprepared.  Moise Tshombe, a leader of southeast region that had the copper mines, announced its separate independence.  Tshombe was backed by Belgians interested in the copper, while Lumumba was supported by the communist Soviet Union.  Joseph Mobutu, with sympathy by the West, then overthrew Lumumba, who was then murdered.  Tshombe ruled for a short period until he, too, was overthrown by Mobutu.

Mobutu renamed the nation Zaire, and ruled it for 32 years.  He personally accumulated enormous wealth from the nation, until he was deposed (overthrown) by Laurent Kabila in 1997.  Kabila then changed the nation's name to the Democratic Republic of Congo.  The neighboring countries of Rwanda and Uganda supported an insurrection in 1998, and a civil war resulted between the pro-Kabila Hutu tribe and the anti-Kabila Tutsi tribe.  As more African nations became involved in this conflict in Central Africa, it began to look like the first all-African war.  The United Nations sent peacekeeping troops in February 2000 and a cease-fire was declared later that year.

Mobutu renamed the nation Zaire, and ruled it for 32 years.  He personally accumulated enormous wealth from the nation, until he was deposed (overthrown) by Laurent Kabila in 1997.  Kabila then changed the nation's name to the Democratic Republic of Congo.  The neighboring countries of Rwanda and Uganda supported an insurrection in 1998, and a civil war resulted between the pro-Kabila Hutu tribe and the anti-Kabila Tutsi tribe.  As more African nations became involved in this conflict in Central Africa, it began to look like the first all-African war.  The United Nations sent peacekeeping troops in February 2000 and a cease-fire was declared later that year.

'''Portuguese colony - Angola'''

==== Portuguese colony - Angola ====

Portugal suppressed independence movements in its colony of Angola until 1975, when opposition to the continuing expenses caused an overthrow of the government in the mother country of Portugal itself.  Once free, three different revolutionary groups fought each other for control of Angola:  (1) the communist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), which grabbed the Angolan capital city of Luanda, (2) the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), which was supported by Zaire and the United States, and (3) the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) which was aided by South Africa and the United States.  Peace was not achieved until 1988 and only then did the communist Cuban troops leave.  All three groups continue to seek representation in the Angolan government.

Portugal suppressed independence movements in its colony of Angola until 1975, when opposition to the continuing expenses caused an overthrow of the government in the mother country of Portugal itself.  Once free, three different revolutionary groups fought each other for control of Angola:  (1) the communist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), which grabbed the Angolan capital city of Luanda, (2) the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), which was supported by Zaire and the United States, and (3) the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) which was aided by South Africa and the United States.  Peace was not achieved until 1988 and only then did the communist Cuban troops leave.  All three groups continue to seek representation in the Angolan government.

'''Dutch and British colony – South Africa'''

==== Dutch and British colony – South Africa ====

South Africa was the most complex, and the most prosperous, of the African colonies.  As early as the 1600s the Dutch established Cape Town as a city at the southern tip of Africa.  But during the Napoleonic Wars the British captured Cape Town (in 1815) and drove the Dutch (the “Boers”) inland.  The Dutch favored continuation of slavery; the British abolished slavery in its empire in 1833.

South Africa was the most complex, and the most prosperous, of the African colonies.  As early as the 1600s the Dutch established Cape Town as a city at the southern tip of Africa.  But during the Napoleonic Wars the British captured Cape Town (in 1815) and drove the Dutch (the “Boers”) inland.  The Dutch favored continuation of slavery; the British abolished slavery in its empire in 1833.

Finally, in 1989, a new South African president named F.W. de Klerk was elected who would change the country.  With international approval, de Klerk legalized the ANC, released Nelson Mandela from jail, and obtained repeal of apartheid laws, and agreed to fully democratic elections in 1994.  Nelson Mandela then won those elections and the ANC won a majority in the National Assembly, the bigger house in the South African Parliament.  A new constitution containing a bill of rights like that in the United States was adopted in 1996, though it also included entitlement and social rights.  The world fully accepts South Africa now, and it will host the World Cup (soccer) in 2010.

Finally, in 1989, a new South African president named F.W. de Klerk was elected who would change the country.  With international approval, de Klerk legalized the ANC, released Nelson Mandela from jail, and obtained repeal of apartheid laws, and agreed to fully democratic elections in 1994.  Nelson Mandela then won those elections and the ANC won a majority in the National Assembly, the bigger house in the South African Parliament.  A new constitution containing a bill of rights like that in the United States was adopted in 1996, though it also included entitlement and social rights.  The world fully accepts South Africa now, and it will host the World Cup (soccer) in 2010.

'''British, French and Italian colony - Somalia'''

==== British, French and Italian colony - Somalia ====

Somalia is a Muslim country that is a combination of former colonies known as British Somaliland, French Somaliland and Italian Somaliland.  Somalia has been Muslim since A.D. 900 and today is considered one of the bases for the terrorist group al-Qaida.  Roughly the size of New Jersey in area and population, Somalia is located on the coast of East Africa (the Indian Ocean) and borders both Ethiopia and Kenya.  Somalia obtained its independence in 1960.  The violence is such in Somalia today that it has no central government at all.  In 1993, 18 American soldiers were killed in Somalia, and on Jan. 9, 2007 the United States bombed parts of the country where al-Qaida terrorists were believed to be hiding.

Somalia is a Muslim country that is a combination of former colonies known as British Somaliland, French Somaliland and Italian Somaliland.  Somalia has been Muslim since A.D. 900 and today is considered one of the bases for the terrorist group al-Qaida.  Roughly the size of New Jersey in area and population, Somalia is located on the coast of East Africa (the Indian Ocean) and borders both Ethiopia and Kenya.  Somalia obtained its independence in 1960.  The violence is such in Somalia today that it has no central government at all.  In 1993, 18 American soldiers were killed in Somalia, and on Jan. 9, 2007 the United States bombed parts of the country where al-Qaida terrorists were believed to be hiding.

'''D. Israel'''

=== D. Israel ===

“Zionism” began in the late 1800s to reestablish a Jewish state in Palestine in and around Jerusalem, which the ancient Hebrews had built.  Theodor Herzl led the movement in the 1890s to establish a modern state of Israel.  Jewish people were motivated partly by the religious faith that Jerusalem and Palestine were the Promised Land, and partly motivated by a desire to live together again after many centuries of dispersion in other lands, where they endured persecution.  The Russian pogroms of violence against Jewish settlements reinforced the desire for a new Jewish homeland.  The “Dreyfus Affair” in France in 1894, whereby a French captain was persecuted based on a false accusation of selling military secrets to Germany, added to the desire for a Jewish nation that could defend against persecution.

“Zionism” began in the late 1800s to reestablish a Jewish state in Palestine in and around Jerusalem, which the ancient Hebrews had built.  Theodor Herzl led the movement in the 1890s to establish a modern state of Israel.  Jewish people were motivated partly by the religious faith that Jerusalem and Palestine were the Promised Land, and partly motivated by a desire to live together again after many centuries of dispersion in other lands, where they endured persecution.  The Russian pogroms of violence against Jewish settlements reinforced the desire for a new Jewish homeland.  The “Dreyfus Affair” in France in 1894, whereby a French captain was persecuted based on a false accusation of selling military secrets to Germany, added to the desire for a Jewish nation that could defend against persecution.

In the early 21st century, Israel endured a series of horrific suicide bombings, often targeting Jewish weddings, buses, caregivers and even children.  Weekly and sometimes daily there would be new reports of a half-dozen Jews murdered by a Muslim suicide bomber, and sometimes a second bomb would detonate to murder those who came to the aid of the initial victims.  Israel finally stopped the bombings by building a wall to end the flow of weapons and terrorists from hostile neighbors.

In the early 21st century, Israel endured a series of horrific suicide bombings, often targeting Jewish weddings, buses, caregivers and even children.  Weekly and sometimes daily there would be new reports of a half-dozen Jews murdered by a Muslim suicide bomber, and sometimes a second bomb would detonate to murder those who came to the aid of the initial victims.  Israel finally stopped the bombings by building a wall to end the flow of weapons and terrorists from hostile neighbors.

'''E. Russia'''

=== E. Russia ===

Russia and other nations in the Soviet Union regained their independence when the Union broke up.   

Russia and other nations in the Soviet Union regained their independence when the Union broke up.   

Muslim-dominated Chechnya in southwest Russia became a difficult issue for Yeltsin.  In 1991, it declared its independence from Russia, but Yeltsin suppressed that by sending troops to Grozny, its capital city.  Resistance by the Chechens was intense, and the troops were initially withdrawn.  But a bloody civil war has ensued for over a decade, including hostage-takings and, in 2004, the Chechen rebels seized a large school near Chechnya and killed over 300 of the children and teachers.  In 2006, Russia claimed to have killed the leader in charge of the seizure of the school.  The trouble continues.  

Muslim-dominated Chechnya in southwest Russia became a difficult issue for Yeltsin.  In 1991, it declared its independence from Russia, but Yeltsin suppressed that by sending troops to Grozny, its capital city.  Resistance by the Chechens was intense, and the troops were initially withdrawn.  But a bloody civil war has ensued for over a decade, including hostage-takings and, in 2004, the Chechen rebels seized a large school near Chechnya and killed over 300 of the children and teachers.  In 2006, Russia claimed to have killed the leader in charge of the seizure of the school.  The trouble continues.  

'''F. Eastern Europe'''

=== F. Eastern Europe ===

The defeat of communism in the Soviet Union really began in the Eastern European “satellite” countries of communism, initially in Poland and Hungary.  In 1978, the Roman Catholic Church elected the first non-Italian pope in many centuries, elevating a Polish cardinal who had been active in the anticommunist movement in his homeland of Poland.  Pope John Paul II then became a leader and hero to his countrymen in Poland, which is nearly 100% Catholic.  Another Polish leader, Lech Walesa, led a strike against a shipyard in Gdansk in 1980, demanding government recognition for his labor union called Solidarity.  The Polish communist government was weak at this time and vacillated in its response, but in 1981 it cracked down on Solidarity and imposed marital law throughout the country.  A popular anticommunist priest was then murdered.  An assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II, also thought to have been organized by communists, injured but did not kill him.

The defeat of communism in the Soviet Union really began in the Eastern European “satellite” countries of communism, initially in Poland and Hungary.  In 1978, the Roman Catholic Church elected the first non-Italian pope in many centuries, elevating a Polish cardinal who had been active in the anticommunist movement in his homeland of Poland.  Pope John Paul II then became a leader and hero to his countrymen in Poland, which is nearly 100% Catholic.  Another Polish leader, Lech Walesa, led a strike against a shipyard in Gdansk in 1980, demanding government recognition for his labor union called Solidarity.  The Polish communist government was weak at this time and vacillated in its response, but in 1981 it cracked down on Solidarity and imposed marital law throughout the country.  A popular anticommunist priest was then murdered.  An assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II, also thought to have been organized by communists, injured but did not kill him.

Ethnic conflict was even worse in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which consists of Muslims, Croats and Serbs, who are Christian.  Bosnia-Herzegovina first declared its independence from Serbia, but the Christian Bosnian Serbs did not want to live under Muslim rule and a civil war began in March 1992 over whether Bosnia would split from Serbia.  Anti-Christian press accused the Serbs of “ethnic cleansing,” or racially motivated mass murders, as the Serbs were allegedly killing off Bosnian Muslims.  A peacekeeping army was sent by the United Nations, and in December 1995 the Muslims, Croats and Serbs signed a peace treaty.  In 1996 a three-person presidency including a leader from each group was elected.

Ethnic conflict was even worse in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which consists of Muslims, Croats and Serbs, who are Christian.  Bosnia-Herzegovina first declared its independence from Serbia, but the Christian Bosnian Serbs did not want to live under Muslim rule and a civil war began in March 1992 over whether Bosnia would split from Serbia.  Anti-Christian press accused the Serbs of “ethnic cleansing,” or racially motivated mass murders, as the Serbs were allegedly killing off Bosnian Muslims.  A peacekeeping army was sent by the United Nations, and in December 1995 the Muslims, Croats and Serbs signed a peace treaty.  In 1996 a three-person presidency including a leader from each group was elected.

'''G. Controversy of the United Nations Troops'''

=== G. Controversy of the United Nations Troops ===

The conflict in Bosnia caused the United Nations (U.N.) to send troops, including American soldiers, into the region in 1995.  Michael G. New was an American soldier who objected to wearing United Nations insignia as part of his military uniform during a deployment to the nearby Republic of Macedonia as part of the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force.  Michael New objected to changing his allegiance from the United States to the U.N.  When Michael New enlisted in the U.S. Army in February 1993, he took an oath to defend the U.S. Constitution and no recruiter or officer mentioned serving under U.N. command.  

The conflict in Bosnia caused the United Nations (U.N.) to send troops, including American soldiers, into the region in 1995.  Michael G. New was an American soldier who objected to wearing United Nations insignia as part of his military uniform during a deployment to the nearby Republic of Macedonia as part of the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force.  Michael New objected to changing his allegiance from the United States to the U.N.  When Michael New enlisted in the U.S. Army in February 1993, he took an oath to defend the U.S. Constitution and no recruiter or officer mentioned serving under U.N. command.  

The military judge and American courts all rejected New’s arguments and held that the legality of the deployment was a nonjusticiable political question that could not be handled by a judge.  Soldier New received a bad-conduct discharge.  New has continued to challenge this in the court system.

The military judge and American courts all rejected New’s arguments and held that the legality of the deployment was a nonjusticiable political question that could not be handled by a judge.  Soldier New received a bad-conduct discharge.  New has continued to challenge this in the court system.

'''H. China'''

=== H. China ===

In 1978, Deng Xiaoping succeeded Mao and Zhou as dictator in China.  He was more friendly to capitalism and the West, and began a program called the Four Modernizations.  He abolished communes and began leasing land to farmers who could work the land for personal profit.  He permitted private businesses and some foreign investment in special economic zones (SEZs).  He promoted tourism and sent many Chinese teenagers to the West to be educated in Western colleges.  But when Chinese students sought greater freedoms and democracy, Deng brutally suppressed them by sending tanks to Tiananmen Square to massacre hundreds of demonstrators on June 4, 1989.

In 1978, Deng Xiaoping succeeded Mao and Zhou as dictator in China.  He was more friendly to capitalism and the West, and began a program called the Four Modernizations.  He abolished communes and began leasing land to farmers who could work the land for personal profit.  He permitted private businesses and some foreign investment in special economic zones (SEZs).  He promoted tourism and sent many Chinese teenagers to the West to be educated in Western colleges.  But when Chinese students sought greater freedoms and democracy, Deng brutally suppressed them by sending tanks to Tiananmen Square to massacre hundreds of demonstrators on June 4, 1989.

On July 1, 1997, Great Britain’s lease on Hong Kong expired and it returned its former colony to China, which promised to allow Hong Kong to remain capitalistic for another 50 years.

On July 1, 1997, Great Britain’s lease on Hong Kong expired and it returned its former colony to China, which promised to allow Hong Kong to remain capitalistic for another 50 years.

'''I. Latin America'''

=== I. Latin America ===

"Latin America" is Spanish America and Brazil, where Portuguese is spoken.  Put another way, Latin America is all of America south of the United States.  Latin America is thus Mexico, Central and South America.  It has 523 million people, far more than the U.S. population of about 300 million.

"Latin America" is Spanish America and Brazil, where Portuguese is spoken.  Put another way, Latin America is all of America south of the United States.  Latin America is thus Mexico, Central and South America.  It has 523 million people, far more than the U.S. population of about 300 million.