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The '''Quasi-War''' was an undeclared naval war between the U.S. and France, 1798-1800. It was inconclusive militarily, but had a profound impact on American politics, as war opponent [[Thomas Jefferson]] defeated President [[John Adams]] for reelection in 1800, even as Adams was ending the war.

The '''Quasi-War''' was an undeclared naval war between the U.S. and France, 1798-1800. It was inconclusive militarily, but had a profound impact on American politics, as war opponent [[Thomas Jefferson]] defeated President [[John Adams]] for reelection in 1800, even as Adams was ending the war.

==Origins==

==Origins==

Although the United States had gained British recognition in 1783 following the American Revolution, it remained endangered by European economic and military rivalries and by insecure possession of the Ohio Valley. Indeed, both Britain and Spain were attempting to separate the western region from the United States. Of particular concern to the Federalist-mercantile classes was the fear that France also was planning to surround the new republic by gaining or regaining possession of Canada, Florida, and the Louisiana country. The agrarian and democratic classes led by [[Thomas Jefferson]] tended to discount this fear and instead professed sympathy for the ideals of the French Revolution.  Foreign policy was the major force behind the creation of the first voter-based political parties in the world during the [[First Party System]].

Although the United States had gained British recognition in 1783 following the American Revolution, it remained endangered by European economic and military rivalries and by insecure possession of the Ohio Valley. Indeed, both Britain and Spain were attempting to separate the western region from the United States. Of particular concern to the Federalist-mercantile classes of the Northeast was the fear that France also was planning to surround the new republic by gaining or regaining possession of Canada, Florida, and the Louisiana country. The agrarian planters led by [[Thomas Jefferson]] discounted this fear and instead admired the ideals of the French Revolution.  They said that British monarchism represented a grave threat to American [[republicanism]], and British influence had to be reduced. Foreign policy became the major force behind the creation of the first voter-based political parties in the world during the [[First Party System]]. The [[Federalist Party]] of Adams (and especially [[Alexander Hamilton]]) thus favored Britain and the [[Democratic-Republican Party]] of Jefferson favored the French.<ref>Disgusted with [[Napoleon]]'s contempt for democracy, Jefferson no longer supported France after 1800; however he continued to oppose Britain.]]

The outbreak in Europe of the War of the First Coalition between Britain and France produced, after 1792, an economic upheaval which both revived and entangled the Federalist-mercantile interests. The sale of grain to France, and the replacement of the British merchant flag by the neutral American one in Near Eastern trade, proved enormously profitable to Americans. The british tried to kill, by blockade, the French grain trade. The major issues with Britain, including its occupation of forts in the Ohio Valley, were resolved by [[Jay's Treaty]] of 1795, which brought ten years of peace and profitable trade between the U.S. and Britain.

The outbreak in Europe of the "War of the First Coalition" between Britain and France produced, after 1792, an economic upheaval which both revived and entangled the Federalist-mercantile interests. The sale of grain to France, and the replacement of the British merchant flag by the neutral American one in Near Eastern trade, proved enormously profitable to Americans. The British tried to stifle, by blockade, the French grain trade. The major issues with Britain, including its occupation of forts in the Ohio Valley, were resolved by [[Jay's Treaty]] of 1795, which brought ten years of peace and profitable trade between the U.S. and Britain.

At the same time the insolent conduct of the French minister [[Edmond Genet]] ("Citizen Genet") forced President [[George Washington]] and Secretary of State [[Thomas Jefferson]] to demand his recall. The ruling French Directory chose to interpret these acts as an expression of pro-British policy by the Federalist administration, headed, between 1797 and 1801, by President [[John Adams]]. Both as a war measure and to relieve its financial strain, the Directory inspired the seizure of 316 U.S. merchant vessels, and even went so far as to seize British merchantmen within U.S. territorial waters.  

At the same time the insolent conduct of the French minister [[Edmond Genet]] ("Citizen Genet") forced President [[George Washington]] and Secretary of State [[Thomas Jefferson]] to demand his recall. The ruling French Directory saw thge recall as hostile. They continued to be upset by the pro-British policy of the Federalist administration of [[John Adams]]. Both as a war measure and to relieve its financial strain, the Directory inspired the seizure of 316 U.S. merchant vessels, and even went so far as to seize British merchantmen within U.S. territorial waters.  

==The XYZ Affair==

==The XYZ Affair==

Despite Republican pressure to overlook the provocation, and the demand of some [[Federalist Party]] leaders led by [[Alexander Hamilton]] for an outright declaration of war, Adams attempted to reach a peaceful solution by sending a special mission to Paris. The French foreign minister, [[Charles de Talleyrand]], refused a meeting, but instead sent three unofficial representatives to U.S. commissioners Charles C. Pinckney, [[John Marshall]], and Elbridge Gerry. The French agents set forth a number of grievances including U.S. refusal to open its ports to French prizes (ships seized at sea), the forced recall of Minister Genet, and the previous dispatch of an American minister, Pinckney himself, who was unacceptable to the Directory. They then demanded a national loan of $64,000,000 to the French Republic, a personal bribe to the Directors, and reaffirmation of the Franco-American Alliance of 1778 as indispensable preliminaries to any settlement. Pinckney and his fellow commissioners refused to enter discussions upon this basis, giving rise to the newspaper slogan, "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute!" The Directory thereupon retaliated by declaring that cargo of British origin would render a neutral ship liable to capture, a virtual ultimatum against the neutral rights of the United States.  

Despite Republican pressure to overlook the provocation, and the demand of some [[Federalist Party]] leaders led by [[Alexander Hamilton]] for an outright declaration of war, Adams attempted to reach a peaceful solution by sending a special mission to Paris. The French foreign minister, [[Charles de Talleyrand]], refused a meeting, but instead sent three unofficial representatives to U.S. commissioners Charles C. Pinckney, [[John Marshall]], and Elbridge Gerry. The French agents set forth a number of grievances including U.S. refusal to open its ports to French prizes (ships seized at sea), the forced recall of Minister Genet, and the previous dispatch of an American minister, Pinckney himself, who was unacceptable to the Directory. They then demanded a national loan of $64,000,000 to the French Republic, a personal bribe to the Directors, and reaffirmation of the Franco-American Alliance of 1778 as indispensable preliminaries to any settlement. Pinckney and his fellow commissioners refused to enter discussions upon this basis, giving rise to the newspaper slogan, "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute!" The Directory thereupon retaliated by declaring that cargo of British origin would render a neutral ship liable to capture, a virtual ultimatum against the neutral rights of the United States.  

==Public Response ==

===Public Outcry==+

Adams refused to consider the French proposals.  The Republicans, mistakenly thinking Adams had rejected reasonable terms, demanded to see the correspondence, which Adams sent to Congress (replacing the actual names of the French agents, with the letters "X," "Y," and "Z.") The public outrage was overwhelming against France.  

Adams refused to consider the French proposals.  The Republicans, mistakenly thinking Adams had rejected reasonable terms, demanded to see the correspondence, which Adams sent to Congress (replacing the actual names of the French agents, with the letters "X," "Y," and "Z.") The public outrage was overwhelming against France.  

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

* Brown, Ralph A. ''The Presidency of John Adams.'' (1988). [http://www.amazon.com/Presidency-John-Adams-American/dp/0700601341/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196382380&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Brown, Ralph A. ''The Presidency of John Adams.'' (1988). [http://www.amazon.com/Presidency-John-Adams-American/dp/0700601341/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196382380&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* DeConde, Alexander. ''The Quasi-War: The Politics and Diplomacy of the Undeclared War with France 1797–1801'' (1966)

* DeConde, Alexander. ''The Quasi-War: The Politics and Diplomacy of the Undeclared War with France 1797–1801'' (1966)

====Notes====

====Notes====

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[[Category:wars]]

[[Category:wars]]

[[Category:United States Navy]]

[[Category:United States Navy]]

[[Category:Early National U.S.]]

[[Category:Early National U.S.]]

[[Category:French History]]

[[Category:French History]]