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=== Ancient India ===

=== Ancient India ===

The roots of ancient India were settlements in the fertile Indus River Valley in what is now Pakistan and northwest India.  This was one of the most fertile regions in the world at the time, with plentiful farm products and animals.  The region was surrounded in the north by the Himalaya mountains, protected to the west by the Indu Kush mountains, and insulated from the east by the Great Indian Desert.  Like Egypt, this region had unique geographic protections against invasion by foreign enemies.  Two cities have been discovered there:  Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (pronounced "huh-ROP-uh").  Other small towns have also been unearthed.  This ancient civilization existed from about 3000 B.C. to 1300 B.C., and its peak was 2600 to 1900 B.C.  It is known as the Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Civilization, named after its big city, Harappa.  These early settlements existed long before classical Indian civilization, which was from 300 B.C. to A.D. 500, and are among the largest ancient civilizations we know of.

The roots of ancient India were settlements in the fertile Indus River Valley, in what is now Pakistan and northwest India.  This was one of the most fertile regions in the world at the time, with plentiful farm products and animals.  The region was surrounded in the north by the Himalaya mountains, protected to the west by the Indu Kush mountains, and insulated from the east by the Great Indian Desert.  Just as Egypt had unique geographic protections against invasion by foreign enemies,so did the Indus River Valley.  Two cities have been discovered there:  Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (pronounced "huh-ROP-uh").  Other small towns have also been unearthed.  This ancient civilization existed from about 3000 B.C. to 1300 B.C., and its peak was 2600 to 1900 B.C.  It is known as the Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Civilization, named after its big city, Harappa.  These early settlements existed long before ''classical'' Indian civilization, which thrived from 300 B.C. to A.D. 500 (similar in time to the Roman Empire).  The early settlements of ancient India, dating back to 3000 B.C., are among the largest ancient civilizations we know of.

Writings have been found from ancient India, but no one has been able to decipher them yet.  The reason these writings are so difficult to decipher is that the symbols are extremely tiny, and all the writings we have contain only a few of these symbols.   

Writings have been found from ancient India, but no one has been able to decipher them yet.  The reason these writings are so difficult to decipher is that the symbols are extremely tiny, and all the writings we have contain only a few of these symbols.  This is a good task for young experts in language!

In terms of technology, the inhabitants of these cities were quite advanced.  The ancient peoples of the Indus River Valley civilization had advanced use of water:  pipes, drains and indoor bathrooms.  They were precise with mathematics, and used this skill to measure weight and mass quite accurately.  But unlike most other civilizations at the time, the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa do not contain any large palaces or monuments to false gods.

In terms of technology, the inhabitants of these ancient settlements were quite advanced.  The ancient peoples of the Indus River Valley civilization had advanced use of water:  pipes, drains and even indoor bathrooms.  They were precise with mathematics, and used this skill to measure weight and mass quite accurately.  But unlike most other civilizations in the 2000s B.C., the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa do not contain any large palaces or monuments to false gods.

The people survived on agriculture and traded with Mesopotamia, but a good portions of the inhabitants were tradesmen, as artistic artifacts from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa bear testament.  The fertile land and geographic protection of the Indus River Valley allowed early civilizations to thrive there.

The ancient Indian people survived on agriculture and traded with Mesopotamia, but a good portions of the inhabitants were tradesmen, as artistic artifacts from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa illustrate.   

The Sarasvati River, which is named after a Hindu goddess, was the largest in ancient India, flowing west of Delhi and providing water to a fertile region as described in the Rig Veda, which is the most fundamental of the sacred Vedic Hindu texts.  (The river has since completely dried up, but was proven to have existed by satellite photographs of India.)  Food and commerce in the Indus River Valley was based on barley (yava), copper (ayas) and cattle.  By 2600 B.C., the Indus-Sarasvati civilization became the largest civilization in the ancient world, spreading from Pakistan to many areas of India today.  It had links to Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, Central Asia and elsewhere.  Its population is estimated to have been 100,000.

As mentioned above, the fertile land and geographic protection of the Indus River Valley allowed and facilitated success by early civilizations there.  The Sarasvati River, which is named after a Hindu goddess, was the largest in ancient India, flowing west of Delhi and providing water to a fertile region as described in the Rig Veda, which is the most fundamental of the sacred Vedic Hindu texts.  (The river has since completely dried up, but was proven to have existed by satellite photographs of India.)  Food and commerce in the Indus River Valley was based on barley (yava), copper (ayas) and cattle.  By 2600 B.C., the Indus-Sarasvati civilization became the largest civilization in the ancient world, spreading from Pakistan to many areas of India today.  It had links to Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, Central Asia and elsewhere.  Its population is estimated to have been 100,000, which is far more than most cities in New Jersey today.

By 2000 B.C., the world’s population was 27 million, 22% of which lived in India.  Interestingly, India still contains a high percentage of the worlds population.  Today India has 16% or so of the world’s population.  Three of the world’s ten most populated cities today are in India: Bombay, Calcutta and Delhi.

By 2000 B.C., the world's population was 27 million, 22% of which lived in India.  Interestingly, India still contains a high percentage of the world's population, but not quite as high as back then: today India has 16% or so of the world's population, or about 1 billion people.  Three of the world's ten most populated cities today are in India: Bombay (recently renamed as Mumbai), Calcutta and Delhi.

Around 1500 B.C., nomads known as “Aryans” invaded through the Bolan and Khyber passes in the Hindu Kush mountain range.  The Aryans spoke Sanskrit, an Indo-European language.  They conquered the Dravidians and caused them to south into India.  Religious literature describes these struggles in the “Rig Veda” and two long poems known as the “Mahabharata” and the “Ramayana”.  By 900 B.C. iron smelting was discovered and became useful in making weapons and tools to clear fields and the jungle for agriculture.  The Aryans were very successful in cultivating the land along the banks of the Ganges River Valley, aided by winds known as monsoons that brought rain from the Indian Ocean.  Rice was the most popular crop, and remains the world’s leading crop even today.

With prosperity in the Indus River Valley came more migration.  Around 1500 B.C., nomads known as "Aryans" invaded through the Bolan and Khyber passes in the Hindu Kush mountain range.  The Aryans spoke Sanskrit, an Indo-European language.  They conquered the Dravidians and caused them to south into India.  Religious (Hindu, the adjective for Hinduism) literature describes these struggles in the "Rig Veda" and two long poems known as the "Mahabharata" and the "Ramayana".  By 900 B.C. iron smelting was discovered and became useful in making weapons and tools to clear fields and the jungle for agriculture.  The Aryans were very successful in cultivating the land along the banks of the Ganges River Valley, aided by forceful winds known as monsoons that brought rain from the Indian Ocean.  Rice was the most popular crop, and remains the world's leading crop even today.

By 975 B.C., the King Hiram of Phoenicia encouraged trade between India and King Solomon of Israel.  In 950 B.C., Jewish people arrived in India in King Solomon’s merchant fleet, and later established colonies there.  Around the same time, perhaps due to increased trade, Sanskrit began to decline as the spoken language of India.  Priestly Sanskrit was later refined between 750 and 250 B.C.   

By 975 B.C., the King Hiram of Phoenicia encouraged trade between India and King Solomon of Israel.  In 950 B.C., Jewish people arrived in India in King Solomon's merchant fleet, and later established colonies there.  Around the same time, perhaps due to increased trade, Sanskrit began to decline as the spoken language of India.  Priestly Sanskrit was later refined between 750 and 250 B.C.   

Perhaps the people migrated southeast to what is India today.  The Vedic (pronounced VAYD-ik) civilization existed from about 1500 to 500 B.C., and is credited with developing the religion and culture of Hinduism (explained further below).  But the “classical” civilization of India came later, after this foundation had been laid.  Classical India consisted of two major empires:  the Mauryan Empire (322-185 B.C.) and the Gupta Empire (A.D. 320-467).  Before, during and after these empires there was very little in the way of a central government, and thus, India is best understood by studying its major religion, Hinduism.  This is one of the oldest and longest-surviving religions in the history of the world, thriving to this day.  India is also the origin of two other major religions, Buddhism and Jainism.  One of Jesus’ Apostles (Thomas) went to India and established a Christian community there that thrives to this day.

Some of the people in the Indus River Valley likely migrated southeast to what is India today.  The Vedic (pronounced VAYD-ik) civilization existed from about 1500 to 500 B.C., and is credited with developing the religion and culture of Hinduism (explained further below).  Note that the "classical" civilization of India came later, after this foundation had been laid.  Classical India consisted of two major empires:  the Mauryan Empire (322-185 B.C.) and the Gupta Empire (A.D. 320-467).  Before, during and after these empires there was very little in the way of a central government, and thus, India is best understood by studying its major religion, Hinduism.  This is one of the oldest and longest-surviving religions in the history of the world, thriving to this day.  India is also the origin of two other major religions, Buddhism and Jainism.  One of Jesus' Apostles (Thomas) went to India and established a Christian community there that thrives to this day.

=== Classical Indian Civilization ===

=== Classical Indian Civilization ===