Changes

Augustus essentially established a constitutional monarchy rather than a true republic, as the Senate’s role was only advisory.  Yet under this system of government the Roman empire thrived for 200 years, with the population of Rome growing to more than one million persons by about A.D. 100, a huge number for the ancient world.  The Roman empire included far more than 100 cities, which had their own local governments, and which engaged in trade with each other.  Eventually, plague and economic disaster began to cause decreases in the populations of cities by about A.D. 200, and barbarian invasions caused more to flee to the countryside.  By the 6th century A.D. the population of Rome was probably less than 50,000 people.  The broadest dates assigned to the Roman empire are from 509 B.C. to A.D. 476, when the last emperor was deposed (removed from power).  The greatest time period for the Roman empire was from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180 (known as “Pax Romana,” as described later).

Augustus essentially established a constitutional monarchy rather than a true republic, as the Senate’s role was only advisory.  Yet under this system of government the Roman empire thrived for 200 years, with the population of Rome growing to more than one million persons by about A.D. 100, a huge number for the ancient world.  The Roman empire included far more than 100 cities, which had their own local governments, and which engaged in trade with each other.  Eventually, plague and economic disaster began to cause decreases in the populations of cities by about A.D. 200, and barbarian invasions caused more to flee to the countryside.  By the 6th century A.D. the population of Rome was probably less than 50,000 people.  The broadest dates assigned to the Roman empire are from 509 B.C. to A.D. 476, when the last emperor was deposed (removed from power).  The greatest time period for the Roman empire was from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180 (known as “Pax Romana,” as described later).

The Roman empire is known for its organization and practical benefits for its citizens:  great roads, drinking water, currency, laws, powerful military, useful sewers and the orderly administration of justice.  Massive in geography, the Empire extended all along the Mediterranean Sea and brought civilization to vast tracts of land and many peoples.  The “Silk Road” connected the Roman empire to Parthia (Persia or modern Iran), China and India, thereby facilitating trade.  The Roman empire also established a language and alphabet that is the basis for Western European countries and the United States to this day.  After initially persecuting Christians, the Roman empire enabled Christianity to expand and flourish.  Summed up in one word, the Roman empire was “organized”.

The Roman empire is known for its organization and practical benefits for its citizens:  great roads, drinking water, currency, laws, powerful military, useful sewers and the orderly administration of justice.  Massive in geography, the Empire extended all along the Mediterranean Sea and brought civilization to vast tracts of land and many peoples.  The “Silk Road” connected the Roman empire to Parthia (Persia or modern Iran), China and India, thereby facilitating trade.  The Roman empire also established a language and alphabet that is the basis for the modern languages and writing of Western Europe and the United States.  After initially persecuting Christians, the Roman empire enabled Christianity to expand and flourish.  Summed up in one word, the Roman empire was “organized”.

The Roman empire flourished during “Pax Romana,” which is Latin for “the Roman peace.”  This is the period from 27 B.C. (when Augustus Caesar declared an end to the civil war) to A.D. 180 (when the philosopher-emperor Marcus Aurelius died).  During this period the Roman empire generally enjoyed peace, leadership by the “Five Good Emperors,” and substantial prosperity.  Several of the emperors during this period were chosen for their talent rather than their family connections, such Nerva, who was elected by the Roman Senate.  Nerva was then followed by four other talented emperors:  Trajan (who ruled over more land than anyone), Hadrian (who built defensive walls), Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.  The last of the Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, was a philosopher who wrote a book about spirituality called “Meditations”, which emphasized one’s duty.  But he should have given more thought to his successor, because his death in A.D. 180 marked the end of Pax Romana.  Chaos followed and the military then fought over who would be the next emperor.

The Roman empire flourished during “Pax Romana,” which is Latin for “the Roman peace.”  This is the period from 27 B.C. (when Augustus Caesar declared an end to the civil war) to A.D. 180 (when the philosopher-emperor Marcus Aurelius died).  During this period the Roman empire generally enjoyed peace, leadership by the “Five Good Emperors,” and substantial prosperity.  Several of the emperors during this period were chosen for their talent rather than their family connections, such Nerva, who was elected by the Roman Senate.  Nerva was then followed by four other talented emperors:  Trajan (who ruled over more land than anyone), Hadrian (who built defensive walls), Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.  The last of the Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, was a philosopher who wrote a book about spirituality called “Meditations”, which emphasized one’s personal duty.  But he should have given more thought to his successor, because his death in A.D. 180 marked the end of Pax Romana.  Chaos followed and the military then fought over who would be the next emperor.

During Pax Romana, the Roman empire governed a vast region extending throughout Western Europe and all the lands around the Mediterranean Sea, including Asia Minor, the Middle East (including Jerusalem) and Northern Africa.  Emperor Claudius, who was in power from A.D. 41 to 54, even conquered what is now England, and added it to the Roman empire.  The Pax Romana was not entirely peaceful, as there were some wars and conflicts, such as wars against the Germanic tribes and Persians, and turmoil in Jerusalem around the time of Christ.  But there were no major civil wars, as there had been for much of the first century B.C., and no major invasions by foreigners into the Roman empire.

During Pax Romana, the Roman empire governed a vast region extending throughout Western Europe and all the lands around the Mediterranean Sea, including Asia Minor, the Middle East (including Jerusalem), and Northern Africa.  Emperor Claudius, who was in power from A.D. 41 to 54, even conquered what is now England, and added it to the Roman empire, leaving behind improved architecture and ideas which allowed England to become powerful during the Middle Ages.  The Pax Romana was not entirely peaceful, as there were some wars and conflicts, such as wars against the Germanic tribes and Persians, and turmoil in Jerusalem around the time of Christ.  But there were no major civil wars, as there had been for much of the first century B.C., and no major invasions by foreigners into the Roman empire.

The Roman economy thrived during this time.  The cities (such as Rome) had good sewage systems and theaters.  Water was brought in from mountains by cleverly designed aqueducts.  Roads were improved and were quite good, even by today’s standards.  There was a common currency (coins) accepted throughout the empire.  Wealthy Romans even had central heating systems in their houses.  There was one set of laws for the entire empire.  The great Roman poet Virgil wrote The Aeneid, which was a fictional story about how Rome was founded and the Roman counterpart to the Greek classics of The Illiad and The Odyssey.  Historical accounts were written by Tacitus (“Annals” concerned public virtue and “Germania” concerned the Germanic tribes on the border of the Roman empire), by Livy (who wrote a history of Rome) and by Plutarch (biographies).  Poetry was written by Ovid (“Metamorphoses”).  Satires were written by Horace.  Philosophy was written by Seneca on morals.  Latin was the language used by teachers, writers, lawmakers, and the Catholic Church in its liturgy.   

The Roman economy thrived during this time.  The cities (such as Rome) had good sewage systems and theaters.  Water was brought in from mountains by cleverly designed aqueducts.  Roads were improved and were quite good, even by today’s standards.  There was a common currency (coins) accepted throughout the empire.  Wealthy Romans even had central heating systems in their houses.  There was one set of laws for the entire empire.  The great Roman poet Virgil wrote The Aeneid, which was a fictional story about how Rome was founded and the Roman counterpart to the Greek classics of The Illiad and The Odyssey.  Historical accounts were written by Tacitus (“Annals” concerned public virtue and “Germania” concerned the Germanic tribes on the border of the Roman empire), by Livy (who wrote a history of Rome) and by Plutarch (biographies).  Poetry was written by Ovid (“Metamorphoses”).  Satires were written by Horace.  Philosophy was written by Seneca on morals.  Latin was the language used by teachers, writers, lawmakers, and the Catholic Church in its liturgy.   

The Roman provinces, such as Gaul and Spain, did well during this period also.  The Roman government built roads and cities for them and constructed aqueducts and sewers.  Schools were built.  A citizen in these provinces enjoyed the right to appeal to the emperor a decision by a provincial governor installed by Rome.

The Roman provinces, such as Gaul and Spain, did well during this period also.  The Roman government built roads and cities for them and constructed aqueducts and sewers.  Schools were built.  A citizen in these provinces enjoyed the right to appeal to the emperor a decision by a provincial governor installed by Rome.

The uniform law was quite fair, even by modern standards.  Women could own property, for example.  The accused were supposedly guaranteed legal protection, and an accused was innocent until proven guilty.  Obviously this did not occur in the trial of Jesus, however, so there was no safeguard against abuse.  But in theory, all citizens were equal in the eyes of the law, though not everyone (and not Jesus) was a citizen.

The uniform law was quite fair, even by modern standards.  Women could own property, for example.  The accused were supposedly guaranteed legal protection, and an accused was innocent until proven guilty.  Obviously this did not occur in the trial of Jesus, however, so there was no safeguard against abuse.  But in theory, all citizens were equal in the eyes of the law, though not everyone (including Jesus) was a citizen.

There were multiple ways to obtain citizenship.  Latins living along the Tiber River were automatically given citizenship.  Others had to enlist in the Roman army for 25 years to earn it.  Paul of Taurus obtained his Roman citizenship by birth to parents who were Roman citizens.  He used his citizenship to invoke his right to appeal to Caesar in Acts 23:31-26:32.

There were multiple ways to obtain citizenship.  Latins living along the Tiber River were automatically given citizenship.  Others had to enlist in the Roman army for 25 years to earn it.  Paul of Taurus obtained his Roman citizenship by birth to parents who were Roman citizens.  He used his citizenship to invoke his right to appeal to Caesar in Acts 23:31-26:32.

Historians criticize huge differences between how the rich and poor lived in Rome, however.  Wealthy Roman citizens enjoyed luxurious homes with private gardens, baths and even country estates.  Banquets and entertainment was frequently for the wealthy, and they enjoyed watching brutal boxing matches to the death between gladiators and even chariot racing in the Colosseum.  Criminals, Christians and slaves were forced to fight vicious animals and be killed by them.  Meanwhile, the poor lived in cramped wood apartment houses, often in small rooms above shops, and often perished in fires.

Historians criticize huge differences between how the rich and poor lived in Rome, however.  Wealthy Roman citizens enjoyed luxurious homes with private gardens, baths and even country estates.  Banquets and entertainment were held frequently for the wealthy, and they enjoyed watching brutal boxing matches to the death between gladiators and even chariot racing in the Colosseum.  Criminals, Christians and slaves were forced to fight vicious animals and be killed by them.  Meanwhile, the poor lived in cramped wood apartment houses and in small rooms above shops, and often perished in fires.

===Roman Emperors===

===Roman Emperors===