Changes

===Roman Emperors===

===Roman Emperors===

Augustus, known until 27 B.C. as Octavian, was the first Roman Emperor.  He was in charge when Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea, which historians say was around 4 B.C.  Augustus ruled until his death in A.D. 14, whereupon the Roman Senate appointed Augustus’s adopted son Tiberius as the next emperor, the first in a line of Augustus’ successors known as the “Julio-Claudian” emperors.   

Augustus, known until 27 B.C. as Octavian, was the first Roman Emperor and the ruler when Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea around 4 B.C.  Augustus ruled until his death in A.D. 14, whereupon the Roman Senate appointed Augustus's adopted son Tiberius as the next emperor, the first in a line of Augustus' successors known as the "Julio-Claudian" emperors.   

When Augustus became emperor, he established the praetorians to protect the Roman general (“praetor”) and the emperor.  These elite, well-trained and privileged troops served as a kind of secret police, having more power than the Secret Service does today in protecting the president of the United States.  It became essential to gain the support of the praetorians in order to hold high office in government.  Constantine abolished the praetorians in the early A.D. 300s.

When Augustus became emperor, he established the praetorians to protect the Roman general ("praetor") and the emperor.  These elite, well-trained and privileged troops served as a kind of secret police, having more power than the Secret Service does today in protecting the president of the United States.  It became essential to gain the support of the praetorians in order to hold high office in government.  Constantine abolished the praetorians in the early A.D. 300s.

Tiberius ruled from A.D. 14-37, and thus was the emperor when Jesus was scourged (whipped) and crucified, barbaric treatment that was prohibited against Roman citizens.  Tiberius had previously served a distinguished military career, and at first was a competent ruler extending the earlier policies of his stepfather Augustus.  But increasingly Tiberius became paranoid, and ruled more and more like a tyrant.  He oversaw many trials for treason and executions, and then left Rome itself in A.D. 26 to retire in Capri, where he was when Jesus was crucified.

Tiberius ruled from A.D. 14-37, and thus was the emperor when Jesus was scourged (whipped) and crucified, barbaric treatment that was prohibited against Roman citizens.  Tiberius had previously served a distinguished military career, and at first was a competent ruler extending the earlier policies of his stepfather Augustus.  But increasingly Tiberius became paranoid, and ruled more and more like a tyrant.  He oversaw many trials for treason and executions, and then left Rome itself in A.D. 26 to retire in Capri, where he was when Jesus was crucified.

The trial of Jesus revealed that while the Roman empire was tremendous in its military, there was much that it lacked in terms of understanding.  Pontius Pilate, like most Romans, had no understanding or appreciation of the concept of objective truth.  “Therefore Pilate said to Him, ‘So You are a king?’ Jesus answered, ‘You say correctly that I am a king.  For this I have been born, and for this I have come into the world, to testify to the truth.  Everyone who is of the truth hears My voice.’ Pilate said to Him, ‘What is truth?’” (John 18:37-38 (NAS)).  Pilate then left without giving Jesus the opportunity to teach him about truth.  In the Roman empire, “truth” did not exist; it was merely whatever the emperor or Roman army said it was.  Intellectual progress in the Roman empire was small in comparison to the achievements of Ancient Greece.

The trial of Jesus revealed that while the Roman empire was tremendous in its military, there was much that it lacked in terms of understanding.  Pontius Pilate, like most Romans, had no understanding or appreciation of the concept of objective truth.  "Therefore Pilate said to Him, 'So You are a king?' Jesus answered, 'You say correctly that I am a king.  For this I have been born, and for this I have come into the world, '''to testify to the truth'''.  Everyone who is of the truth hears My voice.' Pilate said to Him, 'What is truth?'" (John 18:37-38 (NAS)).  Pilate then left without giving Jesus the opportunity to teach him about truth.  In the Roman empire, "truth" did not exist; it was merely whatever the emperor or Roman army said it was.  Intellectual progress in the Roman empire was small in comparison to the achievements of Ancient Greece.

Roman leadership weakened immediately following Tiberius.  He was followed by Caligula (A.D. 37-41), who was a somewhat insane and highly immoral tyrant whose reign ended in assassination by his own guards, a fate that would greet many despotic Roman emperors.  His corrupt rule, which was one of the worst in all of history, can be best remembered as the first emperor to be installed after the crucifixion of Christ.  At one point Caligula made his favorite horse a consul.  In A.D. 39 he removed the consuls without even consulting with the Senate, because the Senate had not gone along with something he wanted to do.  Then he publicly humiliated senators by forcing several of them to trot beside his chariot in public while wearing their full robes.  Caligula even planned to impose and install a statue of himself as Zeus in the holiest part of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, which would have been the worst insult imaginable to the Jewish faith.  His reign of terror came to an end when he was assassinated by one of his own guards, fulfilling Jesus’ teaching that “he who lives by the sword dies by the sword.” When news of Caligula’s death reached the public, they were afraid to show their joy lest it only be a rumor invented by Caligula himself that he might punish anyone who dared celebrate upon his death.   

Roman leadership weakened immediately following Tiberius.  He was followed by Caligula (A.D. 37-41), who was a somewhat insane and highly immoral tyrant whose reign ended in assassination by his own guards, a fate that would greet many despotic Roman emperors.  His corrupt rule, which was one of the worst in all of history, can be best remembered as the first emperor to be installed after the crucifixion of Christ.  At one point Caligula made his favorite horse a consul.  In A.D. 39 he removed the consuls without even consulting with the Senate, because the Senate had not gone along with something he wanted to do.  Then he publicly humiliated senators by forcing several of them to trot beside his chariot in public while wearing their full robes.  Caligula even planned to impose and install a statue of himself as Zeus in the holiest part of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, which would have been the worst insult imaginable to the Jewish faith.  His reign of terror came to an end when he was assassinated by one of his own guards, fulfilling Jesus's teaching that "he who lives by the sword dies by the sword." When news of Caligula's death reached the public, they were afraid to show their joy lest it only be a rumor invented by Caligula himself that he might punish anyone who dared celebrate upon his death.   

Caligula’s successor was his uncle Claudius, chosen by the guards who had killed Caligula.  Some believe the only way Claudius lived through Caligula’s rule was by feigning insanity.  Much to everyone’s surprise, Claudius proved to be a wise and able ruler, and under his rule, Britain became part of the Roman Empire.  Shortly after becoming emperor, however, Claudius died from poisoned mushrooms given to him by his wife so that her son Nero could be king.

Caligula's successor was his uncle Claudius, chosen by the guards who had killed Caligula.  Some believe the only way Claudius lived through Caligula's rule was by feigning insanity.  Much to everyone's surprise, Claudius proved to be a wise and able ruler, and under his rule, Britain became part of the Roman Empire.  Shortly after becoming emperor, however, Claudius died from poisoned mushrooms given to him by his wife so that her son Nero could be king.

Nero was one of the most despised rulers of all time, and was an even more merciless persecutor of the growing numbers of Christians than Caligula.  Nero became emperor at age sixteen, and despite being taught by the great philosopher Seneca, he quickly became a ruthless and irresponsible leader, ordering the murders of his wife and mother and instructing his teacher Seneca and the poet Lucan to commit suicide.  When Rome experienced a ravaging fire in A.D. 64, Nero supposedly sat carelessly playing his fiddle and sang about the fall of Troy.  Nero was initially blamed for the fire; however, another rumor quickly began circulating: the Christians had started the fire.  Nero responded by embarking on one the most terrible executions of Christians the world has ever seen.  He had men, women and children put into the arena and eaten alive by wild animals.  Christians were tarred, tied to tall bundles of sticks and burned alive — human torches to provide light.  Peter and Paul were probably killed during Nero’s reign.  Nero finally killed himself in A.D. 69, much to the relief of Christians and Romans alike.

Nero was one of the most despised rulers of all time, and was an even more merciless persecutor of the growing numbers of Christians than Caligula.  Nero became emperor at age sixteen, and despite being taught by the great philosopher Seneca, he quickly became a ruthless and irresponsible leader, ordering the murders of his wife and mother and instructing his teacher Seneca and the poet Lucan to commit suicide.  When Rome experienced a ravaging fire in A.D. 64, Nero supposedly sat carelessly playing his fiddle and sang about the fall of Troy.  Nero was initially blamed for the fire; however, another rumor to scapegoat Christians quickly began circulating: that Christians had somehow started the fire.  Nero responded by embarking on one the most terrible executions of Christians the world has ever seen.  He had men, women and children put into the arena and eaten alive by wild animals.  Christians were tarred, tied to tall bundles of sticks and burned alive — human torches to provide light.  Peter and Paul were probably killed during Nero's reign.  Nero finally killed himself in A.D. 69, much to the relief of Christians and Romans alike.

    

    

After Nero’s death, the first plebian emperor in Rome’s history rose to power: the wise and practical Vespasian, the first in the line of the “Flavian” emperors.  His son Titus ruled after him, and it was during Titus’ reign that Rome experienced three disasters: destructive fires, a terrible plague, and the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, which completely destroyed the cities Herculaneum and Pompeii.  Vespasian’s other son, Domitian, ruled next and was the last of the Flavian emperors.  Next, the “Five Good Emperors” ruled: Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonious Pius, and lastly, Marcus Aurelius.   

After Nero's death, the first plebian (common man) emperor in Rome's history rose to power: the wise and practical Vespasian, the first in the line of the "Flavian" emperors.  His son Titus ruled after him, and it was during Titus' reign that Rome experienced three disasters: destructive fires, a terrible plague, and the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, which completely destroyed the cities Herculaneum and Pompeii.  Vespasian's other son, Domitian, ruled next and was the last of the Flavian emperors.  Next, the "Five Good Emperors" ruled: Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonious Pius, and lastly, Marcus Aurelius.   

Known as the “philosopher king,” Marcus Aurelius wrote Meditations, a Stoical work expressing compassion for the weak and less fortunate and resignation to one’s fate.  During his reign, he led his powerful army against the Germanic tribes in the north, which had become a threat to the Roman empire.  Before the job was finished, however, he fell ill and died in A.D. 180, leaving the job to his son Commodus.  Lazy and much less capable than his father, Commodus preferred to stay in Rome, and made peace with the Germanic tribes, a decision that would eventually contribute to the destruction of the Roman empire.  

Known as the "philosopher king," Marcus Aurelius wrote ''Meditations'', a Stoical work expressing compassion for the weak and less fortunate and resignation to one's fate.  During his reign, he led his powerful army against the Germanic tribes in the north, which had become a threat to the Roman empire.  Before the job was finished, however, he fell ill and died in A.D. 180, leaving the job to his son Commodus.  Lazy and much less capable than his father, Commodus preferred to stay in Rome, and made peace with the Germanic tribes, a decision that would eventually contribute to the destruction of the Roman empire.  

Diocletian, who ruled from A.D. 284 to 305, attempted to save the Roman empire by dividing it into eastern and western regions, with Byzantium as the capital of the East and Rome as the capital of the West.  He established the “tetrarchy”, or division of power among four rulers in 293 B.C.  The “tetrarchy” included two primary rulers, each with the title “Augustus”, who ruled over the eastern and western empires, and two “Caesars” who served under the Augustuses.  He imposed economic regulations, some of which seem silly today.  For example, Diocletian required farmers to stay with their land and workers to stay on the job for the rest of their lives.  He did this to prevent people from leaving their work to avoid taxation.  For an empire that embraced slavery, this probably seemed like normal regulations.  Diocletian also imposed wage and price controls to halt inflation.  That economic regulation, which almost always fails, is still attempted by modern rulers, such as the United States President during World War II and even President Nixon in the early 1970s.

Diocletian, who ruled from A.D. 284 to 305, attempted to save the Roman empire by dividing it into eastern and western regions, with Byzantium as the capital of the East and Rome as the capital of the West.  He established the "tetrarchy", or division of power among four rulers in 293 B.C.  The tetrarchy included two primary rulers, each with the title "Augustus", who ruled over the eastern and western empires, and two "Caesars" who served under the Augustuses.  He imposed economic regulations, some of which seem silly today.  For example, Diocletian required farmers to stay with their land and workers to stay on the job for the rest of their lives.  He did this to prevent people from leaving their work to avoid taxation.  For an empire that used slavery, this probably seemed like normal regulations.  Diocletian also imposed wage and price controls to halt inflation.  That economic regulation, which almost always fails, is still attempted by modern rulers, such as the United States President during World War II and even President Nixon in the early 1970s.

Diocletian also attempted to suppress Christianity by ordering Christians to worship him and brutally persecuting them when they did not.  He was the last emperor to do this.  Diocletian abdicated (resigned) in A.D. 305.

Diocletian also attempted to suppress Christianity by ordering Christians to worship him and brutally persecuting them when they did not.  He was the last emperor to do this.  Diocletian abdicated (resigned) in A.D. 305.