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'''Operation Torch''' (or '''Operation TORCH''') was the successful American invasion of French North Africa in November, 1942 during [[World War II]]. With the British pushing eastward from Egypt, and with Allied control of the sea and air, the Germans and Italians were caught in a vice and finally surrendered in May, 1943. Torch was the first American contact with the Germans, and taught many lessons for the green American commanders, headed by General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and [[George Patton]], especially the optimum use of air power.

'''Operation Torch''' (or '''Operation TORCH''') was the successful American invasion of French North Africa in November, 1942 during [[World War II]]. With the British pushing eastward from [[Egypt]], and with Allied control of the sea and air, the Germans and Italians were caught in a vice and finally surrendered in May, 1943. Torch was the first American contact with the Germans, and taught many lessons for the green American commanders, headed by General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and [[George Patton]], especially the optimum use of air power.

[[Image:Torch1942.jpg|thumb|380px]]

[[Image:Torch1942.jpg|thumb|380px]]

==Plans==

==Plans==

Eisenhower commanded "Operation Torch" with the mission to seize North Africa, secure the Mediterranean, cut off Germany's  Afrika Corps and associated Italian forces, threaten Italy, and put pressure on Hitler from the south. Torch was not the "second front" that [[Stalin]] wanted because it only engaged a small fraction of Hitler's forces. The British 8th Army under General [[Bernard Montgomery]] was in Egypt, advancing toward General [[Erwin Rommel]]'s crack Afrika Korps (and weak Italian forces) in Libya. The Torch plan was to land a second force in the west--in Morocco and Algeria, which were colonies controlled by pro-Nazi Vichy France--and race to Tunis, thereby trapping Rommel.  

Eisenhower commanded "Operation Torch" with the mission to seize North Africa, secure the Mediterranean, cut off Germany's  Afrika Corps and associated Italian forces, threaten Italy, and put pressure on Hitler from the south. Torch was not the "second front" that [[Stalin]] wanted because it only engaged a small fraction of Hitler's forces. The British 8th Army under General [[Bernard Montgomery]] was in Egypt, advancing toward General [[Erwin Rommel]]'s crack Afrika Korps (and weak Italian forces) in [[Libya]]. The Torch plan was to land a second force in the west--in [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]], which were colonies controlled by pro-Nazi Vichy France--and race to [[Tunis]], thereby trapping Rommel.

 

Eisenhower spent most of his attention on trying to win over the different French political and military cliques, and in coordinating the complex supply lines. The danger that neutral Spain might allow German troops through its territory to cut the Allies off at [[Gibraltar]] made Eisenhower highly cautious. The American divisions had no battle experience whatever; at practice landings in [[Bermuda]], three tons of instructions, maps and aerial photographs were consumed in elaborate briefing sessions. The command ship was a French banana boat that had been converted converted in 3 days and lacked adequate communications gear.  

==Battle==

==Battle==

U.S. General [[George Patton]] had operational command. His 35,000 soldiers sailed 4,000 miles direct from the East Coast then landed on hostile Moroccan beaches; two other landing forces landed in Algeria after embarking in nearby Gibraltar. Spain stayed neutral and the landings went well. The French put up only a token resistance, and soon most Frenchmen in Africa shifted allegiance away from Vichy to the pro-Allied "Free French" movement led by General [[Charles DeGaulle]].  

U.S. General [[George Patton]] had operational command. His 35,000 soldiers sailed 4,000 miles direct from the East Coast then, on November 8, 1942, landed at three sites on the coast of French Morocco, the most important one being about ten miles north of [[Casablanca]]; two other landing forces landed in Algeria after embarking in nearby Gibraltar. Spain stayed neutral and the landings went well. The French forces resisted initially.  Seven destroyers sortied from Casablanca on the first day to intercept the troop transports, but two were sunk by naval gunfire and the others retreated.<ref>''Historical Atlas of the US Navy'', by Craig L. Symonds, Naval Institute Press, 1995</ref>  A cease-fire was negotiated and went into effect on November 11, and soon most Frenchmen in Africa shifted allegiance away from Vichy to the pro-Allied "Free French" movement led by General [[Charles DeGaulle]].  

The Germans were surprised--and outnumbered, outgunned, outsupplied and outmaneuvered. But they moved faster than the Allies and they beat Eisenhower to Tunis. Hitler vetoed any escape because he was fiercely opposed to retreats anywhere--a policy that made all his positions rigid, his armies vulnerable. He sent General Juergen Von Arnim with new forces into Vichy-French Tunisia, while Rommel retreated to a strong defensive position called the Mareth Line in the Tunisian hills. The pincer would not close so easily. However the Allies had a 2-1 advantage in infantry, and 9-1 in tanks. Allied logistics worked well, and a naval/air blockade of the coastline cut off 80% of the enemy supplies. The few remaining panzer tanks ran out of gasoline. Under Eisenhower's general supervision, British General Harold Alexander had operational control of the Allied land forces in the west; Alexander made sure that British soldiers did most of the fighting. When the inexperienced Americans were called upon to hold the Kasserine Pass, they were whipped by Rommel's bold use of a few panzers, and lost 200 tanks. Eisenhower then replaced the unaggressive corps commander with Patton, his most flamboyant and pugnacious fighter. By May the inexorable pincers had closed; without a great fight Von Arnim surrendered 160,000 Germans and 14 90,000 Italians. Rommel escaped to fight another day.  

The Germans were surprised--and outnumbered, outgunned, outsupplied and outmaneuvered. But they moved faster than the Allies and they beat Eisenhower to Tunis. Hitler vetoed any escape because he was fiercely opposed to retreats anywhere--a policy that made all his positions rigid, his armies vulnerable. He sent General Juergen Von Arnim with new forces into Vichy-French Tunisia, while Rommel retreated to a strong defensive position called the Mareth Line in the Tunisian hills. The pincer would not close so easily. However the Allies had a 2-1 advantage in infantry, and 9-1 in tanks. Allied logistics worked well, and a naval/air blockade of the coastline cut off 80% of the enemy supplies. The few remaining panzer tanks ran out of gasoline. Under Eisenhower's general supervision, British General Harold Alexander had operational control of the Allied land forces in the west; Alexander made sure that British soldiers did most of the fighting. When the inexperienced Americans were called upon to hold the Kasserine Pass, they were whipped by Rommel's bold use of a few panzers, and lost 200 tanks. Eisenhower then replaced the unaggressive corps commander with Patton, his most flamboyant and pugnacious fighter. By May the inexorable pincers had closed; without a great fight Von Arnim surrendered 160,000 Germans and 14 90,000 Italians. Rommel escaped to fight another day.  

* Porch, Donald. '' The Path to Victory: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Path-Victory-Mediterranean-Theater-World/dp/0374205183/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213460820&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]

* Porch, Donald. '' The Path to Victory: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Path-Victory-Mediterranean-Theater-World/dp/0374205183/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213460820&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]

* Walker, Ian. ''Iron Hulls Iron Hearts: Mussolini's Elite Armoured Divisions in North Africa'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Iron-Hulls-Hearts-Mussolinis-Divisions/dp/1861268394/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213460007&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]

* Walker, Ian. ''Iron Hulls Iron Hearts: Mussolini's Elite Armoured Divisions in North Africa'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Iron-Hulls-Hearts-Mussolinis-Divisions/dp/1861268394/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213460007&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]

* Zaloga, Steven, and Michael Welply.  ''Kasserine Pass 1943: Rommel's last victory'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Kasserine-Pass-1943-Rommels-Campaign/dp/1841769142/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213460007&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]

* Zaloga, Steven, and Michael Welply.  ''Kasserine Pass 1943: Rommel's last victory'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Kasserine-Pass-1943-Rommels-Campaign/dp/1841769142/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1213460007&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]

* [[World War II]]

* [[World War II]]

====notes====

==notes==

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[[Category:World War II]]

[[Category:World War II]]