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The Islamic religion adheres to only the Arabic version of the Qur'an as the only authentic version, and translations are not accepted.  This caused the spread of the Arabic language throughout the Middle East and into Asia, and increased the influence of the new religion.  This also prevents any translators from changing the meaning of the Qur'an.

The Islamic religion adheres to only the Arabic version of the Qur'an as the only authentic version, and translations are not accepted.  This caused the spread of the Arabic language throughout the Middle East and into Asia, and increased the influence of the new religion.  This also prevents any translators from changing the meaning of the Qur'an.

Muhammad's first successor, or "[[caliph]]", was his friend [[Abu-Bakr]].  He kept together the Islamic faith, but around A.D. 660 a schism occurred in Islam between the [[Sunnis]], the largest group, and the stricter Shiites (or Shi'ites or Shia).  They could not agree on who should be the successor to Muhammad, and the Shiites chose [[Ali]], a son-in-law of Muhammad, as caliph.  The Sunnis — made up of the members of the Umayyad clan — triumphed in this first period of Islamic history.  During the reign of a Sunni king named [[Umar]], Islam grew at an astounding rate.  At the [[Battle of Yarmuk]], 40,000 Muslims defeated an army of 120,000 Byzantines.   

Muhammad's first successor, or "[[caliph]]", was his friend [[Abu-Bakr]].  He kept together the Islamic faith, but around A.D. 660 a schism occurred in Islam between the [[Sunnis]], the largest group, and the stricter Shiites (or Shi'ites or Shia).  They could not agree on who should be the successor to Muhammad, and the Shiites chose [[Ali]], a son-in-law of Muhammad, as caliph.  The Sunnis — made up of the members of the Umayyad clan — triumphed in this first period of Islamic history.  During the reign of a Sunni king named [[Umar]], Islam grew at an astounding rate.  At the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] (A.D. 636 AD), 40,000 Muslims defeated an army of 120,000 Byzantines.   

In 750 A.D., the Abbasid clan — whose members supported the Shiite sect — defeated the Umayyads.  The rule of Abassid caliph "Harun al-Rashid" is known as the "Golden Age of Islam."

In 750 A.D., the Abbasid clan — whose members supported the Shiite sect — defeated the Umayyads.  The rule of Abassid caliph "Harun al-Rashid" is known as the "Golden Age of Islam."

==Russians, Slavs and Turks==

==Russians, Slavs and Turks==

[[Russia]] today is by far the largest country in the world by land mass, having almost twice the area of the second-largest country ([[Canada]]).  Russia currently has the world's eighth largest population, ranking behind number one [[China]], number two [[India]], number three [[United States]], and several other Asian countries and [[Brazil]].  Russia is 15% Muslim today.

[[Russia]] today is by far the largest country in the world by land mass, having almost twice the area of the second-largest country ([[Canada]]).  Russia currently has the world's ninth largest population, ranking behind number one [[China]], number two [[India]], number three [[United States]], and several other Asian countries and [[Brazil]].  Russia is 15% Muslim today.

Russia is located on what is known as the "[[steppe]]" (pronounced simply as "step"), which is a broad, flat grassland lacking trees.  The steppe stretches across Asia and eastern Europe.  The steppe has fertile soil and navigable rivers for trade.  By A.D. 100, [[Slavic]] peoples (the "Slavs") had settled the steppe and cultivated the soil with iron tools.  They lived in tribes and villages but were easy victims for nomadic fighters such as the [[Huns]].

Russia is located on what is known as the "[[steppe]]" (pronounced simply as "step"), which is a broad, flat grassland lacking trees.  The steppe stretches across Asia and eastern Europe.  The steppe has fertile soil and navigable rivers for trade.  By A.D. 100, [[Slavic]] peoples (the "Slavs") had settled the steppe and cultivated the soil with iron tools.  They lived in tribes and villages but were easy victims for nomadic fighters such as the [[Huns]].

As the Roman empire was collapsing in the A.D. 400s, it withdrew from Britain.  In the view of some, the legend of King Arthur dates to this time, when a hero named Ambrosius Aurelianus emerged for the British people.  But no one knows how much, if any, of the legend of King Arthur is factual.

As the Roman empire was collapsing in the A.D. 400s, it withdrew from Britain.  In the view of some, the legend of King Arthur dates to this time, when a hero named Ambrosius Aurelianus emerged for the British people.  But no one knows how much, if any, of the legend of King Arthur is factual.

Who were the British people at that time?  The "Anglo-Saxons", who were Germanic tribes that conquered England and ruled it in a chaotic manner until the Norman conquest of A.D. 1066 brought order and prosperity to the entire island.  The "Anglo-Saxons" were actually a mixture of three different Germanic peoples:  the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes.  The "Picts" were another group of people who settled Scotland at this time.  The greatest Anglo-Saxon ruler was Alfred the Great, who defended Britain from Viking attacks in the A.D. 800s.

Who were the British people at that time?  The "Anglo-Saxons", who were Germanic tribes that conquered England and ruled it in a chaotic manner until the Norman conquest of A.D. 1066 brought order and prosperity to the entire island.  The "Anglo-Saxons" were actually a mixture of three different Germanic peoples:  the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes.  The "Picts" were another group of people who emerged in Scotland at this time.  The greatest Anglo-Saxon ruler was Alfred the Great, who defended Britain from Viking attacks in the A.D. 800s.

Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine of Canterbury to convert Britain to Christianity in A.D. 596, and English monks and nuns helped that effort in the centuries that followed.   

Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine of Canterbury to convert Britain to Christianity in A.D. 596, and English monks and nuns helped that effort in the centuries that followed.   

Charles' son had the humorous name "Pepin the Short."  Despite the name, he was also a brilliant leader of the Franks.  Pepin conquered territory around Rome and then gave it as a gift to the pope.  The pope returned the favor with the "Donation of Pepin," laying the foundation for the Papal States, which were territories under the control of the pope.  Charles Martel and Pepin's family were the Carolingian dynasty that ruled the Franks from 751 all the way to 987.

Charles' son had the humorous name "Pepin the Short."  Despite the name, he was also a brilliant leader of the Franks.  Pepin conquered territory around Rome and then gave it as a gift to the pope.  The pope returned the favor with the "Donation of Pepin," laying the foundation for the Papal States, which were territories under the control of the pope.  Charles Martel and Pepin's family were the Carolingian dynasty that ruled the Franks from 751 all the way to 987.

Pepin’s son (and Charles Martel’s grandson) was Charlemagne (A.D. 742-814), who became the most famous member of the family.  The name “Charlemagne” (SHAR-luh-MAIN) is from the Latin “Carolus Magnum,” which means “Charles the Great.” He conquered the territory once held by the Roman empire in his attempt to reestablish it; he educated children in palace schools; and he created the “missi dominici” (king’s officials) to watch over his empire.  His revival of education became known as the Carolingian Renaissance, a brief period of progress or light in what is otherwise criticized as the Dark Ages.   

Pepin’s son (and Charles Martel's grandson) was Charlemagne (A.D. 742-814), who became the most famous member of the family.  The name "Charlemagne" (pronounced SHAR-luh-MAIN) is from the Latin "Carolus Magnum," which means "Charles the Great." He conquered the territory once held by the Roman empire in his attempt to reestablish it; he educated children in palace schools; and he created the "missi dominici" (king's officials) to watch over his empire.  His revival of education became known as the Carolingian Renaissance, a brief period of progress or light in what is otherwise criticized as the Dark Ages.   

Charlemagne was a well-educated Christian known to be highly intelligent and a promoter of arts and learning.  He served king of the Franks from A.D. 768 until his death in 814.  The Franks were offended by a practice of another Germanic tribe, the Saxons, whereby they would leave their dead out on funeral pyres to be consumed by animals.  This seemed contrary to the Christian faith in the resurrection, and for 35 years Charlemagne attempted to forcibly convert the Saxons to Christianity.  But the Saxons would revert to paganism after every conversion, until Charlemagne made paganism a crime against the state.  Critics say that Charlemagne treated non-Christians badly, and cite an example of how Charlemagne ordered 4,500 Saxons to be beheaded after they destroyed one of his armies.

Charlemagne was a well-educated Christian known to be highly intelligent and a promoter of arts and learning.  He served king of the Franks from A.D. 768 until his death in 814.  The Franks were offended by a practice of another Germanic tribe, the Saxons, whereby they would leave their dead out on funeral pyres to be consumed by animals.  This seemed contrary to the Christian faith in the resurrection, and for 35 years Charlemagne attempted to forcibly convert the Saxons to Christianity.  But the Saxons would revert to paganism after every conversion, until Charlemagne made paganism a crime against the state.  Critics say that Charlemagne treated non-Christians badly, and cite an example of how Charlemagne ordered 4,500 Saxons to be beheaded after they destroyed one of his armies.

Charlemagne was very good to Christians and he was crowned “Holy Roman Emperor” by Pope Leo III in A.D. 800, supposedly by the pope placing a crown on him by surprise from behind during Christmas mass in Rome (a “coronation”).  This established the precedent for the practice that pope decided who would be king, a practice continued by Charlemagne’s son.  The power of the Catholic Church thereby grew even stronger.  This moment in A.D. 800, the crowning of Charlemagne in Rome, is considered to be the birth of the “Holy Roman Empire.”

Charlemagne was very good to Christians and he was crowned "Holy Roman Emperor" by Pope Leo III in A.D. 800, supposedly by the pope placing a crown on him by surprise from behind during Christmas mass in Rome (a "coronation").  This established the precedent for the new practice that pope decided who would be king, a practice continued by Charlemagne's son.  The power of the Catholic Church thereby grew even stronger.  This moment in A.D. 800, the crowning of Charlemagne in Rome, is considered to be the birth of the "Holy Roman Empire," which is not to be confused with the ancient "Roman Empire."

Charlemagne had a prestige that many future kings in the Middle Ages attempted unsuccessfully to duplicate.  His empire, also known also known as the Carolingian empire, covered modern-day France, Germany to the River Elbe, much of Italy and part of Spain.  One of the most lasting effects of his rule was the establishment of Christianity as the main religion in the West.  

Charlemagne had great prestige that many future kings in the Middle Ages attempted unsuccessfully to duplicate.  His empire, also known also known as the Carolingian empire, covered modern-day France, Germany to the River Elbe, much of Italy and part of Spain.  One of the most lasting effects of his rule was the establishment of Christianity as the main religion in the West.  

The capital of the Carolingian empire was not Rome, but Aachen in what is now Germany.  Charlemagne’s son Louis “the Pious” held the empire together from 814-840, but when he died his three sons fought with each other.  They split the empire three ways in the Treaty of Verdun in 843.  Western Europe was just too vast and diverse for a single ruler, and a new system was needed.  That new system was feudalism.

The capital of the Carolingian empire was not Rome, but Aachen in what is now Germany.  Charlemagne's son Louis "the Pious" then held this empire together from 814-840, but when he died his three sons fought with each other.  They split the empire three ways in the Treaty of Verdun in 843.  Western Europe was just too vast and diverse for a single ruler, and a new system was needed.  That new system was feudalism.

===Feudalism in Western Europe===

===Feudalism in Western Europe===

The basic feudal system consisted of a “noble” or “lord” who possessed land (called a “fief”) given by the king.  The lords lived in castles surrounded by moats, and rented their land out to “vassals.”  Vassals were also considered nobles, but with less power.  They provided military service to the lords in exchange for protection and land, which they in turn rented out to the “peasants” or “serfs” to farm.  The system had some similarities to the plantation system used in the south in America before the Civil War, except the peasants and vassals were not bound to their lord in western Europe and thus were not slaves.  Instead, the peasants were bound to their land, and when one lord sold all the land to another lord, the peasants did not move.  Warfare amongst the various different estates was common under feudalism, due to the lack of any kind of centralized government, and peasants were required to fight for their lords against foreign invaders.  They were also required to provide their lord with a share of their crops while not fighting an invasion.   

The basic feudal system consisted of a “noble” or “lord” who possessed land (called a “fief”) given by the king.  The lords lived in castles surrounded by moats, and rented their land out to “vassals.”  Vassals were also considered nobles, but with less power.  They provided military service to the lords in exchange for protection and land, which they in turn rented out to the “peasants” or “serfs” to farm.  The system had some similarities to the plantation system used in the south in America before the Civil War, except the peasants and vassals were not bound to their lord in western Europe and thus were not slaves.  Instead, the peasants were bound to their land, and when one lord sold all the land to another lord, the peasants did not move.  Warfare amongst the various different estates was common under feudalism, due to the lack of any kind of centralized government, and peasants were required to fight for their lords against foreign invaders.  They were also required to provide their lord with a share of their crops while not fighting an invasion.   

Initially, most peasants were free men, but eventually became more and more dependent on the lords, especially as serfdom increased.  Serfs were bound to the land by custom and heredity and were not particularly free.  The peasants did not have the iron plow until about A.D. 1000, and it was hard work to till the soil with the primitive wooden plows.  After discovering the iron plow, food production soared.

Initially, most peasants were free men, but eventually became more and more dependent on the lords, especially as serfdom increased.  Serfs were bound to the land by custom and heredity and were not particularly free.  The peasants did not have the iron plow until about A.D. 1000, and it was hard work to till the soil with the primitive wooden plows.  After inventing the iron plow, food production soared.

The peasants worked on these estates or “manors” in order to obtain a “benefice” (privilege) to keep some of the food they grew for their own families, and also to benefit from the protection from foreign invasion.  So the deal was this:  the lord allowed the peasant to farm land on the lord’s estate (the “manor”) in exchange for the peasant giving the lord some of the food and fighting in wars as needed.  In the words of a popular business expression today, this was a “win-win” situation for both, though obviously the lord benefits more.  Critics say that women were discriminated against with respect to ownership of property, because they did not have the opportunity to serve in the army to acquire land and only sons, not daughters, inherited fiefs.

The peasants worked on these estates or “manors” in order to obtain a “benefice” (privilege) to keep some of the food they grew for their own families, and also to benefit from the protection from foreign invasion.  So the deal was this:  the lord allowed the peasant to farm land on the lord’s estate (the “manor”) in exchange for the peasant giving the lord some of the food and fighting in wars as needed.  In the words of a popular business expression today, this was a “win-win” situation for both, though obviously the lord benefits more.  Critics say that women were discriminated against with respect to ownership of property, because they did not have the opportunity to serve in the army to acquire land and only sons, not daughters, inherited fiefs.