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=== The Aztecs ===

=== The Aztecs ===

The Aztecs (the Mexica) (A.D. 1200-1521) adopted many of the legends, ball games, calendar and customs of their predecessors, but were more warlike.  In 1325, they built their capital named Tenochtitlan in central Mexico on an island in Lake Texcoco pursuant to a prophecy, and constructed three causeways to connect it to the mainland.  The capital city was magnificent, featuring splendid pyramids and temples.  The Aztecs trade with far-away peoples, and acquired wealth through trade and tributes.  Intellectually, however, the Aztecs did not advance knowledge or civilization.

The Aztecs (the Mexica) (A.D. 1200-1521) adopted many of the legends, ballgames, calendar and customs of their predecessors, but were more warlike.  In 1325, they built their capital named Tenochtitlan in central Mexico on an island in Lake Texcoco pursuant to a prophecy, and constructed three causeways to connect it to the mainland.  The capital city was magnificent, featuring splendid pyramids and temples.  The Aztecs trade with far-away peoples, and acquired wealth through trade and tributes.  Intellectually, however, the Aztecs did not advance knowledge or civilization.

For food they used plots of floating land called chinampas, which were made from soil dredged from the bottom of the lake.  They grew mostly corn and some squash and beans.  They traded gems, cacoa (chocolate), and animal skins.  They were more powerful than their neighbors and even formed a “Triple Alliance” with the city-states of Tlacopan and Texcoco to keep peace.  The Aztecs had very little bureaucracy and did not maintain a standing army.  There was no reason to, as soldiers could be summoned as needed.

For food they used plots of floating land called chinampas, which were made from soil dredged from the bottom of the lake.  They grew mostly corn and some squash and beans.  They traded gems, cacoa (chocolate), and animal skins.  They were more powerful than their neighbors and even formed a "Triple Alliance" with the city-states of Tlacopan and Texcoco to keep peace.  The Aztecs had very little bureaucracy and did not maintain a standing army.  There was no reason to, as soldiers could be summoned as needed.

The Aztecs funded their activities based on mandatory tributes, and they would sacrifice people (including their enemies) with greater frequency than prior civilizations.  For example, the Aztecs worshiped a war god named [[Huitzilopochtli]], to whom the Aztecs sacrificed prisoners of war.  They felt this helped their future with the gods.

The Aztecs funded their activities based on mandatory tributes, and they would sacrifice people (including their enemies) with greater frequency than prior civilizations.  For example, the Aztecs worshiped a war god named [[Huitzilopochtli]], to whom the Aztecs sacrificed prisoners of war.  They felt this helped their future with the gods.

Montezuma II was the ruler when the Spanish arrived and conquered the Aztecs in 1519.  Historians feel that the Aztecs had already been weakened internally, partly due to their demands of tribute and human sacrifice.  The Spaniards, under Hernando Cortes, crushed the Aztecs in 1521 and destroyed the Aztec capital at Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City).  Cortes founded Mexico City as the new capital.

Montezuma II was the ruler when the Spanish arrived and conquered the Aztecs in 1519.  Historians feel that the Aztecs had already been weakened internally, partly due to their demands of tribute and human sacrifice.  The Spaniards, under Hernando Cortes, crushed the Aztecs in 1521 and destroyed the Aztec capital at Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City).  Cortes founded Mexico City as the new capital.

The Incas (the Quechua) (beginning in A.D. 1250, but especially 1438-1537)

=== The Incas ===

The Incas developed a massive empire in the [[Andes]] Mountains in South America, considered to be the largest civilization in all of the Americas.  Its beginnings were in the Moche civilization that thrived in South America in the first millennium, along the Andes mountain range.  Their culture was based on a system of “reciprocity”, whereby people traded favors and work in a cooperative manner, and on “verticality”, whereby people exploited the advantages of different altitudes in the mountains for jobs like growing different crops.

The Incas (the Quechua) (beginning in A.D. 1250, but especially 1438-1537) developed a massive empire in the [[Andes]] Mountains in South America, considered to be the largest civilization in all of the Americas.  Its beginnings were in the Moche civilization that thrived in South America in the first millennium, along the Andes mountain range.  Their culture was based on a system of "reciprocity", whereby people traded favors and work in a cooperative manner, and on "verticality", whereby people exploited the advantages of different altitudes in the mountains for jobs like growing different crops.

A ruler named Pachacuti (A.D. 1438-1471) conquered the surroundings of Lake Titicaca and then gained control of the coastal Chimu, which had been a power in the 900s, by cutting off its irrigation system.  He established an empire on the west side of South America that extended along the coast from nearly from the top (north) of South America to its bottom (south), including present-day Ecuador and Chile.  The empire also extended many miles inland, including the high regions of the mountains.  Included were 12 million people of many different ethnic backgrounds.  Loyalty was obtained by taking important hostages from conquered peoples, and also by settling reliable Quechua loyalists in each conquered area.  The capital was at Cuzco.

A ruler named Pachacuti (A.D. 1438-1471) conquered the surroundings of Lake Titicaca and then gained control of the coastal Chimu, which had been a power in the 900s, by cutting off its irrigation system.  He established an empire on the west side of South America that extended along the coast from nearly from the top (north) of South America to its bottom (south), including present-day Ecuador and Chile.  The empire also extended many miles inland, including the high regions of the mountains.  Included were 12 million people of many different ethnic backgrounds.  Loyalty was obtained by taking important hostages from conquered peoples, and also by settling reliable Quechua loyalists in each conquered area.  The capital was at Cuzco.

Unlike other civilizations, the Incas lacked a written language.  Instead, the Incas used a large cord to administer their empire.  The “quipu” was a third cord that held together many different cords of various colors, shapes and sizes.  The cords kept an accounting of things in the empire, such as population.  The Incas had superb roads and system of messengers and soldiers to transmit messages and maintain order.  Stations existed along the roads for supplies, food, and overnight stays, like hotels.  Overall, the Incas were good administrators of their vast empire.

The Incas lacked a written language, which made it different from other civilizations.  Instead, the Incas used a large cord to administer their empire.  The "quipu" was a third cord that held together many different cords of various colors, shapes and sizes.  The cords kept an accounting of things in the empire, such as population.  The Incas had superb roads and system of messengers and soldiers to transmit messages and maintain order.  Stations existed along the roads for supplies, food, and overnight stays, like hotels.  Overall, the Incas were good administrators of their vast empire.

The Incas differed from the Aztecs in that the Incas did not demand tribute to fund the empire.  Instead, the Incas required people to work in “mita”, which were shifts of mandatory farming, building, or mining.  Small groups formed (“ayllu”) to do community projects.  Women cared for the households and did tasks like making clothes.  Like the Central American (“Mesoamerican”) societies, daughters inherited from their mothers and sons inherited from their fathers, a system known as “parallel descent.”

The Incas differed from the Aztecs in that the Incas did not demand tribute to fund the empire.  Instead, the Incas required people to work in "mita", which were shifts of mandatory farming, building, or mining.  Small groups formed ("ayllu") to do community projects.  Women cared for the households and did tasks like making clothes.  Like the Central American ("Mesoamerican") societies, daughters inherited from their mothers and sons inherited from their fathers, a system known as “parallel descent.”

The Spanish called the Incas “big ears” because the wealthy (aristocrats) would wear earrings so heavy that they would stretch their ears.  The king, or “Inca”, was considered to be a god who descended from the sun, while his main wife was considered to be from the moon.  Like the Egyptians, mummification was used to preserve the rulers after they died, and major decisions would even be made in the presence of the mummies to benefit from their wisdom.

The Spanish called the Incas "big ears" because the wealthy (aristocrats) would wear earrings so heavy that they would stretch their ears.  The king, or "Inca", was considered to be a god who descended from the sun, while his main wife was considered to be from the moon.  Like the Egyptians, mummification was used to preserve the rulers after they died, and major decisions would even be made in the presence of the mummies to benefit from their wisdom.

Religion played a key role.  There was a god believed to be the creator named Viracocha.  Human sacrifice was used but animal sacrifice was more popular.  Sin was recognized and punished in an afterlife.  The main religious city was probably Machu Picchu, located high in the Andes and first discovered in 1912 by Hiram Bingham.

Religion played a key role.  There was a god believed to be the creator named Viracocha.  Human sacrifice was used but animal sacrifice was more popular.  Sin was recognized and punished in an afterlife.  The main religious city was probably Machu Picchu, located high in the Andes and first discovered in 1912 by Hiram Bingham.