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[[World History Lecture One|1]]-[[World History Lecture Two|2]]-[[World History Lecture Three|3]]-[[World History Lecture Four|4]]-[[World History Lecture Five|5]]-[[World History Lecture Six|6]]-[[World History Lecture Seven|7]]-[[World History Lecture Eight|8]]-[[World History Lecture Nine|9]]-[[World History Lecture Ten|10]]-[[World History Lecture Eleven|11]]-[[World History Lecture Twelve|12]]-[[World History Lecture Thirteen|13]]-[[World History Lecture Fourteen|14]]

Sixth Lecture – Middle Ages (the Second Millennium)

The first millennium began with Christ and Pax Romana, then saw the fall of the Roman Empire followed by what historians call the Dark Ages.  There was the founding of Islam and the struggle for control of Europe and the Middle East.  There was the institution of feudalism, both in Christian Europe and non-Christian Japan.

Instructor, Andy Schlafly

Most of all, the first millennium was defined by the rapid growth of Christianity, particularly in Eastern and Western Europe.  The growth brought growing pains:  heresies, which were successfully overcome, and then challenge by Islam by Western Europe, which Christianity overcame, and finally a massive split between the Christian Church in the West and East that remains to this day.  Let us begin.

==Introduction to the Second Millennium (A.D. 1000s)==

==The First Century of the Second Millennium: A.D. 1001 to 1100==

The second millennium began in the 1000s with a century of turmoil as Christianity grew larger and Islam began to challenge it.  Two key dates were 1054, when the schism or split occurred between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, and 1055, when the Seljuk Turks captured Baghdad in present-day Iraq.  Both events set the stage for a big battle between Christian and Moslem forces in Palestine.

The second millennium began in the 1000s with a century of turmoil as Christianity grew larger and Islam began to challenge it.  Two key dates were 1054, when the schism or split occurred between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, and 1055, when the Seljuk Turks captured Baghdad in present-day Iraq.  Both events then set the stage for a massive struggle between Christian and Moslem forces in Palestine.

In 1054, the Byzantine empire established its own church, known as the “Eastern Orthodox Church.”  This church resulted from the schism in the Roman Catholic Church.  The dispute began with a controversy over the popular use of icons and then spread to other issues such as whether priests could marry and whether divorce would be allowed.   

In 1054, the Byzantine empire established its own church, known as the “Eastern Orthodox Church.”  This church resulted from the “Great Schism” in the Roman Catholic Church, which was much different from the Protestant Reformation that occurred centuries later.  This Great Schism resulted in two separate churches, each of which claimed to be the true Catholic Church.  In contrast, the Protestant Reformation did not result in two churches making similar assertions of authority.

The word “icon” comes from the Greek word “eikon” for “image”.  The Eastern Orthodox Church embraced icons and rejected three-dimensional statutes.  The Eastern Orthodox Church also allowed its priests to marry, and permitted divorce.  The Roman Catholic Church took the opposite position on all three issues.  Also, in an Orthodox wedding ceremony there is no exchange of vows between husband and wife.  That is considered for them to decide privately.

The Great Schism began with a controversy over the popular use of icons and then spread to other issues such as whether priests could marry and whether divorce would be allowed.  There was also a doctrinal dispute underlying a single term, “filioque”.   

These churches disagreed about the authority of the pope, which would cause a split between Catholics and Protestants centuries later, also led to disagreements between the Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church.  To this day there have been many efforts to reunite these two churches, but they have been unsuccessful.  Today Turkey is 99% Muslim, but the Eastern Orthodox Church remains the dominant church in Russia and many countries of eastern Europe and Asia.   

“Filioque” means “and the Son,” a phrase from the Nicene Creed, the statement of faith that united Christians against heresies that was embraced by Christianity under the Roman Emperor Constantine in A.D. 325.  The phrase from the Nicene Creed:  “We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son.”<ref> http://anglicansonline.org/basics/nicene.html</ref>  The Western Church (Rome) believed that the Holy Spirit originates from both Jesus and His Father, but the Eastern Christians believed that the Holy Spirit originates only from God the Father.

 

The dispute over the use of icons is easier to understand.  The word “icon” comes from the Greek word “eikon” for “image”.  The Eastern Orthodox Church embraced icons but rejected three-dimensional statutes.  The Eastern Orthodox Church also allowed its priests to marry, and permitted divorce.  The Roman Catholic Church took the opposite position on all three issues by allowing statutes, prohibiting marriage by priests, and prohibiting divorce.  There were also minor differences.  In an Orthodox wedding ceremony there is no public exchange of vows between husband and wife.  That is considered for them to decide privately.

 

These churches – the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church – also disagreed about the authority of the pope, a dispute that contributed centuries later to a split between Catholics and Protestants.  To this day there have been many unsuccessful attempts to reunite these two churches.  Now there are many little differences.  Both churches make a sign of the Cross, but the final “cross” motion in making the sign is from left-to-right for the Catholics but from right-to-left for the Eastern Orthodox.  Another difference is that the Eastern Orthodox Church absolutely prohibits cremation after death, while the practice has recently become widespread among Catholics.  The Eastern Orthodox Church also determines the date for Easter in a different manner from the Western Church, and often they are on different Sundays.

 

The Eastern Orthodox Church remains the dominant church in Russia and many countries of Eastern Europe (including Greece) and Asia, but no longer is influential in the home of the former Byzantine empire, which is Turkey.  It is 99% Muslim.  There are many adherents of the Eastern Orthodox Church today in the United States.

The Eastern Orthodox Church and particularly its Saint Cyril were extremely influential in converting the Slavic regions of Eastern Europe (including Russia) to Christianity.  Saint Cyril even established a new alphabet for the purpose of teaching the Slavs to read the Bible.  His Cyrillic alphabet remains the basis of the alphabet for Russia and other Slavic countries.

The Eastern Orthodox Church and particularly its Saint Cyril were extremely influential in converting the Slavic regions of Eastern Europe (including Russia) to Christianity.  Saint Cyril even established a new alphabet for the purpose of teaching the Slavs to read the Bible.  His Cyrillic alphabet remains the basis of the alphabet for Russia and other Slavic countries.

After the schism, the Catholic Church strengthened its organizational structure in 1059 when it established the College of Cardinals to elect future popes, thereby ensuring a smooth transition from pope to pope that has continued to this day.  At that time power in western Europe was centered in two places:  Germany, where the Saxons ruled, and Rome, where the papacy presided.  Their relationship was sometimes friendly, sometimes not-so-friendly.  Smaller kingdoms in France and England existed also.

After the Great Schism, the Catholic Church strengthened its organizational structure in 1059 when it established the College of Cardinals to elect future popes, thereby ensuring a smooth transition from pope to pope that has continued to this day.  At that time power in Western Europe was centered in two places:  Germany, where the Saxons ruled, and Rome, where the papacy presided.  Their relationship was sometimes friendly, sometimes not-so-friendly.  Smaller kingdoms in France and England existed also.

The biggest event in English history was the Battle of Hastings in 1066, when the Normans invaded and conquered the island and established the reign of William the Conqueror, which lasted until 1087.  The Normans continued on to conquer most of Italy in 1084.   

The most important pope in the first century of the new millennium was Pope Gregory VII, who reigned from 1073 to 1085.  He is known for ending the control of the western church by the secular (non-church) rulers, particularly by abolishing “lay investiture,” by which non-church lords had control over the choice of bishops, abbots and other church officials.  Pope Gregory excommunicated the German King Henry IV because he insisted on installing bishops, and Henry IV even crossed the Alps in wintertime to seek forgiveness and absolution from the pope in the Canossa incident in 1077.  Historians today view the incident as an example of humiliation of a king by a religious leader.  Pope Gregory forgave him, but then Henry IV continued to demand control and even removal of Pope Gregory, ultimately causing Gregory to flee from Rome in 1084 in order to survive.  Pope Gregory then died a year later, while Henry IV lived on for another 20 years.  This conflict by Germany and Rome would emerge again with the Protestant Reformation hundreds of years later.

Meanwhile, Christianity continued to grow in power based on the productive feudal system.  The Christians defeated the Muslims in Spain in 1085 at the battle of Toledo, beginning the process of converting Spain back to Christianity after hundreds of years of Moslem rule.   

The most important pope of this time was Pope Gregory VII, who reigned from 1073 to 1085.  He is known for ending the control of the western church by the secular (non-church) rulers, particularly by abolishing lay investiture, by which lay lords had control over the choice of bishops, abbots and other church officials.  Pope Gregory excommunicated the German King Henry IV for insisting on installing bishops, and Henry IV even crossed the Alps in wintertime to seek forgiveness and absolution from the pope in the Canossa incident in 1077.  Historians today view the incident as an example of humiliation of a king by a religious leader.  Pope Gregory forgave him, but then Henry IV continued to demand control and even removal of Pope Gregory, ultimately causing him to flee Rome in 1084 to survive.  Pope Gregory died a year later, while Henry IV lived on for another 20 years.

Several strict Christian religious orders were established in the 1000s in Europe, including the Carthusian Order (1086) and the Cistercian Order (1098).  There are monks today who continue to belong to these orders.  Both orders require silence and vegetarianism, in addition to giving up all worldly possessions.  The Carthusians lived (and still live) like hermits; the Cistercians spread Christianity and western farming knowledge to Eastern Europe, hosting many retreats for citizens to attend and participate in a week or weekend of prayer and learning.  At its peak, the Cistercians had over 700 monasteries.

Christianity continued to grow in power based on the feudal system.  The Christians defeated the Muslims in Spain in 1085 at the battle of Toledo, beginning the process of converting Spain back to Christianity after hundreds of years of Moslem rule.

In 1066, the biggest event in English history occurred: the Battle of Hastings.  The Normans invaded and conquered the island and based on winning this battle the Normans established the reign of William the Conqueror, which lasted until 1087.  The Normans continued on to conquer most of Italy in 1084.  A few years later, in 1088, the first university in the world was established as the University of Bologna in Italy.

Several strict Christian religious orders were established in the 1000s in Europe, including the Carthusian Order (1086) and the Cistercian Order (1098).  There are monks today who continue to belong to these orders.  Both orders require silence and vegetarianism, in addition to giving up all worldly possessions.  The Carthusians lived like hermits; the Cistercians spread Christianity and western farming knowledge to Eastern Europe, hosting many retreats for citizens to attend and participate in a week or weekend of prayer and learning.  At its peak, the Cistercians had over 700 monasteries.  The first university in the world was established in 1088:  the University of Bologna in Italy.

The end of this important first century of the second millennium was the capture by the Christians of Jerusalem.  This was the victory of the Crusades, a controversial military expedition that we discuss next.

Capping the end of the 1000s was the capture by the Christians of Jerusalem.  This was the greatest success of the Crusades, which we discuss next.

==Crusades==

==Crusades==

The most famous military activity in the feudal period was the “Crusades”, a series of wars covering nearly 200 years, from A.D. 1096-1291.  Only the First Crusade and, to a lesser extent, the Third Crusade were successful.  But the First Crusade alone was immensely successful.  

The most famous military activity in the feudal period was the “Crusades”, a series of wars covering nearly 200 years, from A.D. 1096-1291.  The First Crusade was immensely successful.  To a lesser extent, the Third Crusade was also a success.  The other Crusades were not successful.

 

The primary motivation of the Crusades was to make Jerusalem safe for Christian pilgrimages.  Fed up with reports of the murdering of defenseless Christian pilgrims, in 1095 Pope Urban II called for feudal knights to retake the Holy Land from the Seljuk Turks.  At the time the Seljuk Turks were considered to be invincible fighters, having conquered Asia Minor and even defeating the once-mighty Byzantine empire.  Even now, as proven in wars such as the Korean War, Turkish soldiers are known to be incredibly tough and tenacious.  The communist torture and brainwashing of Western forces in the Korean War broke soldiers from every nation, including the United States, but had little effect on the Turkish soldiers, who were extremely tough mentally.

One of the main purposes of the Crusades was to make Jerusalem safe for Christian pilgrimages.  Fed up with reports of the murdering of defenseless Christian pilgrims, in 1095 Pope Urban II called for feudal knights to retake the Holy Land from the Seljuk Turks.  The Seljuk Turks seemed almost invincible as fighters, having conquered Asia Minor and even beating the once-mighty Byzantine Empire.  The Seljuk Turks ruled from the 1000s to the 1200s, and did particularly well under its ruler Malik Shah, who died in 1092.  But some Moslems were unhappy with being ruled by the Turks, and once Malik died dissension in the Islamic world grew.

The Seljuk Turks defeated all opponents, ruling from the 1000s to the 1200s.  They did particularly well under their ruler Malik Shah, who died in 1092.  But some Moslems were unhappy with being ruled by the Turks, and once Malik died dissension in the Islamic world grew.

The Byzantine emperor, Alexius Comnenus, had been repeatedly defeated by the Seljuk Turks and he asked the pope for help to defeat the Moslems.  He promised a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church and to give Byzantine lands (“fiefs”) to victorious knights from the feudal west.

The Byzantine emperor, Alexius Comnenus, had been repeatedly defeated by the Seljuk Turks and he asked the pope for help to defeat the Moslems.  He promised a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church and to give Byzantine lands (“fiefs”) to victorious knights from the feudal west.

At the Council at Clermont in southern France, Pope Urban II gave one of the greatest speeches ever.  Promising absolution and assurance of salvation to anyone who died in the crusade, he urged a huge crowd to protect Christian pilgrims from the Turks.  He demanded that all internal feuds end and he threatened excommunication for anyone who continued to bicker internally.  Those who decided to fight in the crusades were said to be “taking up the cross,” because they would wear a tunic with a large red cross on it.

At the Council at Clermont in southern France, Pope Urban II gave one of the greatest speeches ever.  Promising absolution and assurance of salvation to anyone who died in a crusade for the Holy Land, he urged a huge crowd to protect Christian pilgrims from the Turks.  He demanded that all internal feuds end in the West and he threatened excommunication (expulsion from the Catholic Church) for anyone who continued to bicker internally.  Those who decided to fight in the crusades were said to be “taking up the cross,” because they would wear a tunic with a large red cross on it.

At first Peter the Hermit answered the call of Pope Urban and led an unprepared group of peasants in the first mission, which failed.  But news of its failure led to renewed determination by the Christians, and a well-equipped religious mission led by the Normans was formed.  This became known as the First Crusade.

At first “Peter the Hermit” answered the call of Pope Urban and led an unprepared group of peasants in a small first mission (not large enough to be called the “First Crusade”).  Peter the Hermit and his band of peasants failed.  But news of its failure led to renewed determination by the Christians, and a well-equipped religious mission led by the Normans was formed.  This became known as the First Crusade.

When the western forces reached Constantinople to join with Alexius’ soldiers, the western army was already overwhelming.  It proceeded to capture Nicaea in 1097, and went onward to Jerusalem despite intense fighting and hardship.

When these western forces reached Constantinople to join with Alexius’ soldiers, the western army was already overwhelming.  It proceeded to capture Nicaea in 1097, and went onward to Jerusalem despite intense fighting and hardship.

In 1099, the First Crusade invaded and succeeded in capturing Jerusalem, and set up four feudal kingdoms that would remain for nearly 100 years.  Critics claim that the Christian crusaders massacred the inhabitants of Jerusalem in the process.  But it was a huge military victory and Jerusalem was finally made safe for the pilgrims.  

In 1099, the First Crusade invaded and succeeded in capturing Jerusalem, and set up four feudal kingdoms that would remain for nearly 100 years.  Critics claim that the Christian crusaders massacred the inhabitants of Jerusalem in the process.  But it was a huge military victory for the Western forces, and Jerusalem was finally made safe for the pilgrims.  

A mixture of Christian spirituality and military adventure motivated the participants in the Crusades like never before in history and perhaps never since.  Merchants participated also in the hope of establishing new trade connections.  While historians emphasize abuses committed by soldiers, most of the crusaders were acting to advance the cause of Christianity and secure salvation for others and perhaps themselves.  This was not necessarily true for all of the crusaders.  Criminals who fought were pardoned, and a crusader was exempt from taxation from the time that he “took up the cross,” until he returned from the war.  Still for the most part, this was a religious war.

A mixture of Christian spirituality and military adventure motivated the participants in the Crusades like never before in history, and perhaps never again since.  Merchants participated also in the hope of establishing new trade connections.  While historians emphasize abuses committed by soldiers, most of the crusaders were acting to advance the cause of Christianity and secure salvation for others and perhaps themselves.  Of course not everyone who participated was so noble.  Criminals who fought in the Crusade were pardoned, and a crusader was exempt from taxation from the time that he “took up the cross,” until he returned from the war.  Still for the most part, this was a religious war fought by devout Christians.

A Second Crusade in 1147-49 was a failure.  In 1187 the Muslims captured Jerusalem under their leader Saladin, and the Third Crusade (1189-92) had the limited success of obtaining a truce from Saladin that promised to allow Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem.  That Crusade was led by the leaders of France and the Holy Roman Empire and King Richard the Lion-Hearted of England.  The first returned home after an argument on the way to Jerusalem, and the second drowned; only King Richard saw the mission through.

The Second Crusade in 1147-49, however, was a failure.  Then, in 1187, the Muslims captured Jerusalem under their leader Saladin.  A subsequent Third Crusade (1189-92) had the limited success of obtaining a truce from Saladin in order to allow Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem.  The partially successful Third Crusade was spearheaded by the leaders of France, the Holy Roman Empire, and King Richard the Lion-Hearted of England.  Only King Richard saw this mission to its completion; the other leaders returned home after bickering, or drowned.  

Two subsequent crusades were tragic.  The Fourth Crusade (1202-04) never reached the Holy Land and ended with the crusaders’ sacking Constantinople—a Christian city—wounding it forever and embittering the East against the West.  A Children’s Crusade (1212) consisted of peasants leading thousands of children on a mission of love to Jerusalem, but the children either drowned or were taken and sold into slavery.  The later Crusades lost their religious motivation.  Historians claim they were motivated by greed and ambition.

Two subsequent crusades were tragic.  The Fourth Crusade (1202-04) never reached the Holy Land and ended with the crusaders’ sacking Constantinople—a Christian city—wounding it forever and embittering the East against the West.  A Children’s Crusade (1212) consisted of peasants leading thousands of children on a mission of love to Jerusalem, but the children either drowned or were taken and sold into slavery.  The later Crusades lost their religious motivation.  Historians claim they were motivated by greed and ambition.

The Crusades remain a controversial issue, but all agree that the impact of the Crusades was enormous.  Indeed, the Crusades were the biggest cause of the end of the Middle Ages in Western Europe.  There are many reasons why:

The Crusades remain a controversial issue, particularly by opponents of Christianity who describe it as unjust violence by Christians.  But historians agree that the impact of the Crusades on the world was enormous, even leading to Christopher Columbus exploring the New World.  The Crusades were, in fact, the biggest cause of the subsequent end of the Middle Ages in Western Europe.  There are many reasons why:

(1)  The Catholic Church gained more power due to the Crusades, and this led to the Reformation.

(1)  The Catholic Church gained more power due to the Crusades, and this led to the Reformation.

(8)  Historians argue that the Crusades improved the power of women who were left to manage property as the crusaders went off into battle.

(8)  Historians argue that the Crusades improved the power of women who were left to manage property as the crusaders went off into battle.

Some Christians fully defend the Crusades, and proudly compare the United States’ invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq to a modern version of the Crusades.

Some Christians fully defend the Crusades, and proudly compare the United States’ invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq to a modern version of the Crusades.  But President George W. Bush, perhaps afraid of the psychologically effect of the comparison, carefully avoided comparing the invasion of Afghanistan and the Iraq War to the Crusades.  Note that although both the Crusades and the Iraq War consisted of battles between Christian and Moslems, in neither case were the Christians attempting to use force to convert.

==The Mongols==

==The Mongols==

Asia and eastern Europe suffered the scourge of vicious fighters known as the Mongols.  Japan was very fortunate in one key respect:  it is an island enjoying the protections of water against invaders like the Mongols.   

Asia and Eastern Europe suffered the scourge of vicious fighters known as the Mongols.  Japan was very fortunate in one key respect:  it is an island enjoying the protections of water against invaders like the Mongols.   

The Mongol tribe came from Mongolia, which is northwest of China in central Asia.  They were skilled warriors and expert horsemen, capable of riding for days without any difficulty.  They would pitch tents as needed and they would roam throughout Asia, destroying anything that stood in their way.  They were known for their savagery and were poor administrators of the lands they conquered.

The Mongol tribe came from Mongolia, which is northwest of China in central Asia.  They were skilled warriors and expert horsemen, capable of riding for days without any difficulty.  They would pitch tents as needed and they would roam throughout Asia, destroying anything that stood in their way.  They were known for their savagery and were poor administrators of the lands they conquered.

The founder of the Mongol empire was Chinggis (Genghis) Khan (1162-1227), who united the Mongol tribes.  He dreamed of creating the biggest empire in world history, and he did exactly that.  He built a massive and powerful army based on meritocracy (promotion based on merit rather than friendship or seniority).   

The founder of the Mongol empire was Chinggis (Genghis) Khan (1162-1227), who united the Mongol tribes.  He dreamed of creating the biggest empire in world history, and he did exactly that.  To accomplish his goal, he built a massive and powerful army based on meritocracy (promotion based on merit rather than friendship or seniority).   

Chinggis Khan led the Mongols from 1206 to 1227.  Historians consider him to have been a military genius, and he conquered the largest contiguous empire in the history of the entire world.   

Chinggis Khan led the Mongols from 1206 to 1227.  Historians consider him to have been a military genius, and he conquered the largest contiguous empire in the history of the entire world.   

In all of history, only the Mongols were able to invade Russia successfully in the wintertime.  The Mongols conquered Russia in 1237, and ruled over it until 1480.  This caused isolation of the Russians from Europe, thereby creating a distrust of Europeans (and Americans) that exists to this day.  Russia suffered economically and intellectually from the Mongol rule, and its citizens were subjected to the status of peasants who could act only as serfs for their protectors among the Russian ruling class, who imposed taxes for the benefit of the Mongols.  Prince Alexander Nevsky, based on his cooperation with the Mongols, became the first prince of Moscow and all of Russia.  The tributes by the Russians to the Mongols did not end until Ivan III of Moscow refused to pay tribute in 1480.  By then the Mongols were too weak to do anything about it.

In all of history, only the Mongols were able to invade Russia successfully in the wintertime.  The Mongols conquered Russia in 1237, and ruled over it for nearly 250 years, until 1480.  This caused isolation of the Russians from Europe, thereby creating a distrust of Europeans (and Americans) that exists to this day.  Russia suffered economically and intellectually from the Mongol rule, and its citizens were subjected to the status of peasants who could act only as serfs for their protectors among the Russian ruling class, who imposed taxes for the benefit of the Mongols.  Prince Alexander Nevsky, based on his cooperation with the Mongols, became the first prince of Moscow and all of Russia.  The tributes by the Russians to the Mongols did not end until Ivan III of Moscow refused to pay tribute in 1480.  By then the Mongols were too weak to do anything about it.

 

In 1231, the Mongols invaded Persia and killed hundreds of thousands of people.  In 1258, the Mongols defeated the Muslims in Baghdad, located in modern-day Iraq.  The Mongols spared Christians in the city but killed the caliph Abbasid.  Only later did the Mongols themselves convert to Islam.

The Mongols destroyed cities, irrigation systems, and anything else that they wanted to.  They were greatly feared.  They ruled so much land that they had to divide it into four regions:  Russia, China, central Asia and Persia.  The region of Russia is known as the Khanate of the Golden Horde.   

The Mongols destroyed cities, irrigation systems, and anything else that they wanted to.  They were greatly feared.  They ruled so much land that they had to divide it into four regions:  Russia, China, central Asia and Persia.  The region of Russia is known as the Khanate of the Golden Horde.   

Brutal in their military techniques, the Mongols added the Chinese warfare of gunpowder and the catapult to their fierce arsenal.  They seemed unstoppable and, in addition to conquering much of Asia (including present-day Russia), they also ruled what is now Poland, eastern Germany and Hungary by 1242.  They were finally beaten back by Egyptian Mamluks in a famous battle in Palestine, where for the first time another group was able to defeat the Mongols in tough hand-to-hand combat.  The furthest the Mongols could reach into western Europe was the outskirts of Vienna.

Brutal in their military techniques, the Mongols added the Chinese warfare of gunpowder and the catapult to their fierce arsenal.  They seemed unstoppable and, in addition to conquering much of Asia (including present-day Russia), they also ruled what is now Poland, eastern Germany and Hungary by 1242.  They were finally beaten back by Egyptian Mamluks in a famous battle in Palestine, where for the first time another group was able to defeat the Mongols in tough hand-to-hand combat.  The furthest the Mongols could reach into Western Europe was the outskirts of Vienna.

The Mongols enjoyed continued success in China, where Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty beginning in 1260, with its capital in present-day Beijing.  He connected the Huang He River with Beijing by extending the Grand Canal.  He promoted Buddhism and ended mandatory education in the teachings of Confucius.  He allowed freedom of religion.  He installed foreign administrators to manage the vast country.

The Mongols enjoyed continued success in China, where Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty beginning in 1260, with its capital in present-day Beijing.  He connected the Huang He River with Beijing by extending the Grand Canal.  He promoted Buddhism and ended mandatory education in the teachings of Confucius.  He allowed freedom of religion.  He installed foreign administrators to manage the vast country.

But the Mongols could not conquer Japan.  Twice they tried to cross the waters to reach Japan, in 1274 and 1281.  Each time an intense wind that the Japanese call the “kamikaze” turned back the Mongols.  It was not until World War II that a larger seaborne invasion of Japan was attempted.  The Mongols were also unable to conquer Cambodia or Vietnam.  The Mongols did control Korea from 1231 to 1350.

But every great conqueror in history has had met its match, the one conquest that it could not do.  Alexander the Great didn’t take India and the Roman empire never conquered Germany.  The Mongols could not conquer Japan.  Twice they tried to cross the waters to reach Japan, in 1274 and 1281.  Each time an intense wind that the Japanese call the “kamikaze” turned back the Mongols.  It was not until World War II that a larger seaborne invasion of Japan was attempted by anyone.  The Mongols were also unable to conquer Cambodia or Vietnam.  The Mongols did control Korea from 1231 to 1350.

The Mongols retained control of the area known as “Eurasia”, which is the region where Europe and Asia meet.  It consists of flat grassland that lacks almost any trees, also called “steppe”.   

The Mongols retained control of the area known as “Eurasia”, which is the region where Europe and Asia meet.  It consists of flat grassland that lacks almost any trees, also called “steppe”.   

From the 1250s to 1350s, there was a period of “Mongol Peace” (Pax Mongolica) when traders were not harassed and some might say were even protected by the Mongols along the Silk Roads, which were the ancient and medieval trade routes linking the Mediterranean world to China.

From the 1250s to 1350s, there was a period of “Mongol Peace” (“Pax Mongolica,” similar to “Pax Romana”) when traders were not harassed.  Some might say that traders were even protected by the Mongols along the Silk Roads, which were the ancient and medieval trade routes linking the Mediterranean world to China.

 

Inflation (weakening of the money) destroyed the Mongol empire, just as it destroyed so many other empires and countries.  The rulers kept printing more money and its value kept declining, until businessmen did not want to use it anymore.  Persia obtained its independence from the Mongols in 1335, and China rebelled against the worthless money also, ridding themselves of the Mongols in 1369, when the Chinese established their own Ming Dynasty.  But the Mongols remained a constant threat to China into the 1700s.

The collapse of the Mongol empire in Persia and eastern Europe enabled the Ottoman (Muslim) Turks to rise to power.  They built their own empire then, which lasted until World War I and continues to influence Turkey to this day.

Inflation (weakening of the money) destroyed the Mongol empire, just as it destroyed so many other empires and countries.  The rulers kept printing more money and its value kept declining, until businessmen did not want to use it anymore and the money (and empire) thereby lost its influence.  Persia obtained its independence from the Mongols in 1335.  China rebelled against the worthless money also, ridding themselves of the Mongols in 1369, when the Chinese established their own Ming Dynasty.  But the Mongols remained a constant threat to China into the 1700s.

Today about 9 million people speak the Mongol language:  2.7 million in Mongolia; five million in Inner Mongolia; and one million in Russia.  Some in Afghanistan and Turkey are descended from the Mongols.

Today about 9 million people speak the Mongol language:  2.7 million in Mongolia; five million in Inner Mongolia; and one million in Russia.  Some in Afghanistan and Turkey are descended from the Mongols.

==Nation-States in Europe==

==Nation-States in Europe==

After the Crusades, the kings and the Catholic Church had much more power and feudalism was weakened.  This set the stage for a rise in power of the nation-states that continue to exist to this day.  Viking invasions, which had contributed to the rise of feudalism, subsided.  The Vikings settled down and converted to Christianity and the threat of foreign invasions was diminished.  With new stability, trade began to flourish once again.  The European population tripled between A.D. 1000 and 1300.   

After the Crusades, the kings and the Catholic Church had much more power.  Feudalism had been weakened by the Crusades.  This set the stage for a rise in power of the nation-states that exist today.  Feudalism had been successful in defending against Viking invasions, and the Vikings settled down and converted to Christianity.  The threat of foreign invasions was diminished and feudalism, with its strong defensive system, was no longer needed.  With new stability, trade began to flourish once again.  The European population tripled between A.D. 1000 and 1300.   

Towns began to grow, and merchants formed “guilds”, which were organizations to establish rules and fairness in trade.  Guilds were led by men, but both men and women could be members of a guild.  The practice of apprenticeship began during this time period, by which young men could receive training from a master craftsmen.  A middle class arose, comprised of bankers, merchants and craftsman, and was known as “burgess” in England, “bourgeoisie” in France, and “burgher” in Germany.  As prosperity grew, there was also a rise in banking and investment, and gold coins were used as currency.  An agricultural revolution occurred, bringing improvements such as new plows, harnesses and farming methods.  Feudalism continued to decrease as food surpluses occurred, population increased, and many serfs could now leave the manors.

Towns began to grow, and merchants formed “guilds”, which were organizations to establish rules and fairness in trade.  Guilds were led by men, but both men and women could be members of a guild.  The practice of apprenticeship began during this time period, by which young men could receive training from a master craftsmen.  A middle class arose, comprised of bankers, merchants and craftsman, and was known as “burgess” in England, “bourgeoisie” in France, and “burgher” in Germany.  As prosperity grew, there was also a rise in banking and investment, and gold coins were used as currency.  An agricultural revolution occurred, bringing improvements such as new plows, harnesses and farming methods.  Feudalism continued to decrease as food surpluses occurred, population increased, and many serfs could now leave the manors.