Changes

The plague weakened the Catholic Church, which appeared helpless to stop it.

The plague weakened the Catholic Church, which appeared helpless to stop it.

After the plague began to subside in the 1350s, there were severe worker shortages and even rebellions as workers demanded higher pay.  The devastation to the serf population weakened the force behind the success of the manors and contributed greatly to the end of feudalism.  The plague also created a demand for more centralized government that could respond effectively to disease.

After the plague began to subside in the 1350s, the loss of life from the plague caused severe worker shortages and even rebellions as workers demanded higher pay.  This was an example of hardship resulting from too few people, a lesson that should be remembered today in the context of abortion.  What remained of feudalism collapsed as there were too few workers.  The plague also created a demand for more centralized government that could respond effectively to disease.

In England, the rise of a centralized government began with a series of Anglo-Saxon kings including Alfred the Great, Edward the Confessor and Harold.  In 1066 William the Conqueror, a Norman duke, led an invasion of Britain against the Saxon King Harold.  He successfully conquered the country and declared himself owner of all its land, granting fiefs to his Norman lords.  The system of feudalism under William led to the rise of a centralized government, and the blend of the Norman and Saxon cultures would come to define the people of England.  In 1166, William’s relative Henry II introduced trial by jury and took control of the court system in the “assize of Clarendon.”  Royal judges traveled throughout the land, their decisions establishing an English common law, which has greatly influenced law in the United States.  William was married to Eleanor of Aquitaine, a remarkable woman who had two husbands and two sons who were kings.   

The rise of a centralized government in England began with a series of Anglo-Saxon kings including Alfred the Great, Edward the Confessor and Harold.  In 1066 William the Conqueror, a Norman duke, led an invasion of Britain against the Saxon King Harold.  William the Conqueror prevailed over England and declared himself owner of all its land, granting fiefs to his Norman lords.  The system of feudalism under William led to the rise of a centralized government, and the blend of the Norman and Saxon cultures would come to define the people of England.  In 1166, William’s relative Henry II introduced trial by jury and took control of the court system in the “assize of Clarendon.”  Royal judges traveled throughout the land, and their decisions establishing an English common law, which has greatly influenced law in the United States and continues to this day.  William was married to Eleanor of Aquitaine, a remarkable woman who had two husbands and two sons who were kings.   

Henry’s successor was his son, Richard “The Lionheart,” who fought in the Third Crusade and Richard’s successor was his brother John “Lackland”.  History and myth surrounding these two men has been immortalized in legendary figures such as Robin Hood and Ivanhoe.  Under John’s rule, Philip II of France seized Normandy, and the nobles of England objected to John’s extreme taxation to fund a war.  They revolted in June 1215, and forced John to sign the “Magna Charta” (or “Magna Carta”), a “great charter” that diminished the king’s power and gave increased rights to the nobles.  It granted the rights to trial by jury and equal protection under the law, and prohibited taxation without representation.  The English parliament was also established at this time; the burgesses and knights of the middle class (later known as the “House of Commons”) were now allowed to participate in the legislative process along with bishops and lords (“House of Lords”).  These parliamentary bodies govern Britain to this day.

Henry’s successor was his son, Richard “The Lionheart,” who fought in the Third Crusade and Richard’s successor was his brother John “Lackland”.  History and myth surrounding these two men has been immortalized in legendary figures such as Robin Hood and Ivanhoe.  Under John’s rule, Philip II of France seized Normandy, and the nobles of England objected to John’s extreme taxation to fund a war.  They revolted in June 1215, and forced John to sign the “Magna Charta” (or “Magna Carta”), a “great charter” that diminished the king’s power and gave increased rights to the nobles.  It granted the rights to trial by jury and equal protection under the law, and prohibited taxation without representation.  The English parliament was also established at this time; the burgesses and knights of the middle class (later known as the “House of Commons”) were now allowed to participate in the legislative process along with bishops and lords (“House of Lords”).  These parliamentary bodies govern Britain to this day.

The rise of a unified nation-state in France began with a line of kings known as the “Capetians” (987-1328).  Hugh Capet was the first of the Capetian kings.  By the beginning of the fourteenth century, the Capetians had succeeded in bringing most of France under a centralized government.  Philip II was a Capetian king who expanded France, seizing territories including Normandy from John of England, and establishing the official office of “bailiff”, with tax collecting and royal court duties.  Louis IX “the Pious” established an appeals court, with authority surpassing that of the local courts.  Under the Capetian kings, a French legislative body known as the “Estates General” was created, including the “Third Estate,” which allowed commoners to participate in lawmaking.  

The rise of a unified nation-state in France began with a line of kings known as the “Capetians” (987-1328).  Hugh Capet was the first of the Capetian kings.  By the beginning of the fourteenth century, the Capetians had succeeded in bringing most of France under a centralized government.  Philip II was a Capetian king who expanded France, seizing territories including Normandy from John of England, and establishing the official office of “bailiff”, with tax collecting and royal court duties.  Louis IX “the Pious” established an appeals court, with authority surpassing that of the local courts.  Under the Capetian kings, a French legislative body known as the “Estates General” was created, including the “Third Estate,” which allowed commoners to participate in lawmaking.  

Germany did not succeed in establishing a nation-state, but attempts were made, beginning with Otto I “the Great.”  Otto ruled from 936-973, allied himself with the pope and attempted to establish a “Holy Roman Empire.”  His efforts did not succeed in uniting Germany as one nation, however.  Likewise, in Italy, a unified nation failed to emerge.  Instead the various city-states fought bitterly amongst eachother, which was to continue for centuries.

Germany did not succeed in establishing a nation-state, but attempts were made, beginning with Otto I “the Great.”  Otto ruled from 936-973, allied himself with the pope and attempted to establish a “Holy Roman Empire.”  His efforts did not succeed in uniting Germany as one nation, however.  Likewise, in Italy, a unified nation failed to emerge.  Instead the various city-states fought bitterly amongst each other, which was to continue for centuries.

While nation-states were rising, and kings were gaining more and more authority, controversy arose over who held supreme authority: the pope or the king.  “The Great Schism” (1378-1417) was an argument resulting in French cardinals electing an “antipope” (Clement VII) in order to dispute the authority of recently elected Pope Urban VI.  This and other controversies set the stage for the Protestant Reformation.   

While nation-states were rising, and kings were gaining more and more authority, controversy arose over who held supreme authority: the pope or the king.  “The Great Schism” (1378-1417) was an argument resulting in French cardinals electing an “antipope” (Clement VII) in order to dispute the authority of recently elected Pope Urban VI.  This and other controversies set the stage for the Protestant Reformation.