Changes

The first millennium began with Christ and Pax Romana, then saw the fall of the Roman Empire followed by what historians call the Dark Ages.  There was the founding of Islam and the struggle for control of Europe and the Middle East.  There was the institution of feudalism, both in Christian Europe and non-Christian Japan.

The first millennium began with Christ and Pax Romana, then saw the fall of the Roman Empire followed by what historians call the Dark Ages.  There was the founding of Islam and the struggle for control of Europe and the Middle East.  There was the institution of feudalism, both in Christian Europe and non-Christian Japan.

Most of all, the first millennium was defined by the rapid growth of Christianity, particularly in Eastern and Western Europe.  The growth brought growing pains:  heresies, which were successfully overcome, and then challenge by Islam by Western Europe, which Christianity overcame, and finally a massive split between the Christian Church in the West and East that remains to this day.   

Most of all, the first millennium was defined by the rapid growth of Christianity, particularly in Eastern and Western Europe.  The growth brought growing pains:  heresies, which were successfully overcome, and then challenge by Islam in Western Europe, which Christianity overcame, and finally a massive split between the Christian Church in the West and East that remains to this day.   

We are now in the middle of the Middle Ages, which lasted from A.D. 500 to 1500.  Let us begin.

We are now in the middle of the Middle Ages, which lasted from A.D. 500 to 1500.  Let us begin.

==The First Century of the Second Millennium: A.D. 1001 to 1100==

==The First Century of the Second Millennium: A.D. 1001 to 1100==

The second millennium began in the 1000s with a century of turmoil as Christianity grew larger and Islam began to challenge it.  Two key dates were 1054, when the schism or split occurred between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, and 1055, when the Seljuk Turks captured Baghdad in present-day Iraq.  Both events then set the stage for a massive struggle between Christian and Moslem forces in Palestine.

The second millennium began in the 1000s with a century of turmoil as Christianity grew larger and Islam continued to challenge it.  Two key dates were 1054, when the schism or split occurred between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, and 1055, when the Seljuk Turks captured Baghdad in present-day Iraq.  Both events then set the stage for a massive struggle between Christian and Moslem forces in Palestine.

In 1054, the Byzantine empire established its own church, known as the “Eastern Orthodox Church.”  This church resulted from the “Great Schism” in the Roman Catholic Church, which was much different from the Protestant Reformation that occurred centuries later.  This Great Schism resulted in two separate churches, each of which claimed to be the true Catholic Church.  In contrast, the Protestant Reformation did not result in two churches making similar assertions of authority.

In 1054, the Byzantine empire established its own church, known as the “Eastern Orthodox Church.”  This church resulted from the “Great Schism” in the Roman Catholic Church, which was much different from the Protestant Reformation that occurred centuries later.  This Great Schism resulted in two separate churches, each of which claimed to be the true Catholic Church.  In contrast, the Protestant Reformation did not result in two large churches making similar assertions of authority.

The Great Schism began with a controversy over the popular use of icons and then spread to other issues such as whether priests could marry and whether divorce would be allowed.  There was also a doctrinal dispute underlying a single term, “filioque”.   

The Great Schism began with a controversy over the popular use of icons and then spread to other issues such as whether priests could marry and whether divorce would be allowed.  There was also a doctrinal dispute underlying a single term, “filioque”.   

“Filioque” means “and the Son,” a phrase from the Nicene Creed, the statement of faith that united Christians against heresies that was embraced by Christianity under the Roman Emperor Constantine in A.D. 325.  The phrase from the Nicene Creed:  “We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son.”<ref> http://anglicansonline.org/basics/nicene.html</ref>  The Western Church (Rome) believed that the Holy Spirit originates from both Jesus and His Father, but the Eastern Christians believed that the Holy Spirit originates only from God the Father.

“Filioque” means “and the Son,” a phrase from the Nicene Creed, the statement of faith that united Christians against heresies.  Roman Emperor Constantine adopted this Creed in A.D. 325.  The Nicene Creed includes this:  “We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son.”<ref> http://anglicansonline.org/basics/nicene.html</ref>  The Western Church (Rome) believed that the Holy Spirit originates from both Jesus and His Father, but Eastern Christians believed that the Holy Spirit originates ''only'' from God the Father.

The dispute over the use of icons is easier to understand.  The word “icon” comes from the Greek word “eikon” for “image”.  The Eastern Orthodox Church embraced icons but rejected three-dimensional statutes.  The Eastern Orthodox Church also allowed its priests to marry, and permitted divorce.  The Roman Catholic Church took the opposite position on all three issues by allowing statutes, prohibiting marriage by priests, and prohibiting divorce.  There were also minor differences.  In an Orthodox wedding ceremony there is no public exchange of vows between husband and wife.  That is considered for them to decide privately.

The dispute over the use of icons is easier to understand.  The word “icon” comes from the Greek word “eikon” for “image”.  The Eastern Orthodox Church embraced icons but rejected three-dimensional statutes.  The Eastern Orthodox Church also allowed its priests to marry, and permitted divorce.  The Roman Catholic Church took the opposite position on all three issues by allowing statutes, prohibiting marriage by priests, and prohibiting divorce.  There were also minor differences.  In an Orthodox wedding ceremony there is no public exchange of vows between husband and wife.  That is considered for them to decide privately.

These churches – the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church – also disagreed about the authority of the pope, a dispute that contributed centuries later to a split between Catholics and Protestants.  To this day there have been many unsuccessful attempts to reunite these two churches.  Now there are many little differences.  Both churches make a sign of the Cross, but the final “cross” motion in making the sign is from left-to-right for the Catholics but from right-to-left for the Eastern Orthodox.  Another difference is that the Eastern Orthodox Church absolutely prohibits cremation after death, while the practice has recently become widespread among Catholics.  The Eastern Orthodox Church also determines the date for Easter in a different manner from the Western Church, and often they are on different Sundays.

These churches – the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church – also disagreed about the authority of the pope, a dispute that contributed centuries later to a split between Catholics and Protestants.  To this day there have been many unsuccessful attempts to reunite East and West.  But now there are many little differences.  Both churches make a sign of the Cross, but the final “cross” motion in making the sign is from left-to-right for the Catholics and from right-to-left for the Eastern Orthodox.  Another difference is that the Eastern Orthodox Church absolutely prohibits cremation after death, while the practice has recently become widespread among Catholics.  The Eastern Orthodox Church also determines the date for Easter in a different manner from the Western Church, and often they are on different Sundays.

The Eastern Orthodox Church remains the dominant church in Russia and many countries of Eastern Europe (including Greece) and Asia, but no longer is influential in the home of the former Byzantine empire, which is Turkey.  It is 99% Muslim.  There are many adherents of the Eastern Orthodox Church today in the United States.

The Eastern Orthodox Church remains the dominant church in Russia and many countries of Eastern Europe (including Greece) and Asia, but is no longer influential in the home of the former Byzantine empire, which is Turkey, which is 99% Muslim.  There are many adherents of the Eastern Orthodox Church today in the United States.

The Eastern Orthodox Church and particularly its Saint Cyril were extremely influential in converting the Slavic regions of Eastern Europe (including Russia) to Christianity.  Saint Cyril even established a new alphabet for the purpose of teaching the Slavs to read the Bible.  His Cyrillic alphabet remains the basis of the alphabet for Russia and other Slavic countries.

The Eastern Orthodox Church and particularly its Saint Cyril were extremely influential in converting the Slavic regions of Eastern Europe (including Russia) to Christianity.  Saint Cyril even established a new alphabet for the purpose of teaching the Slavs to read the Bible.  His Cyrillic alphabet remains the basis of the alphabet for Russia and other Slavic countries.

After the Great Schism, the Catholic Church strengthened its organizational structure in 1059 when it established the College of Cardinals to elect future popes, thereby ensuring a smooth transition from pope to pope that has continued to this day.  At that time power in Western Europe was centered in two places:  Germany, where the Saxons ruled, and Rome, where the papacy presided.  Their relationship was sometimes friendly, sometimes not-so-friendly.  Smaller kingdoms in France and England existed also.

After the Great Schism, the Catholic Church strengthened its organizational structure in 1059 when it established the College of Cardinals to elect future popes, thereby ensuring a smooth transition from pope to pope that has continued to this day.  At that time power in Western Europe was centered in two places:  Germany, where the Saxons ruled, and Rome, where the papacy presided.  Their relationship was sometimes friendly, sometimes not-so-friendly.  Smaller kingdoms in France and England existed also.

The most important pope in the first century of the new millennium was Pope Gregory VII, who reigned from 1073 to 1085.  He is known for ending the control of the western church by the secular (non-church) rulers, particularly by abolishing “lay investiture,” by which non-church lords had control over the choice of bishops, abbots and other church officials.  Pope Gregory excommunicated the German King Henry IV because he insisted on installing bishops, and Henry IV even crossed the Alps in wintertime to seek forgiveness and absolution from the pope in the Canossa incident in 1077.  Historians today view the incident as an example of humiliation of a king by a religious leader.  Pope Gregory forgave him, but then Henry IV continued to demand control and even removal of Pope Gregory, ultimately causing Gregory to flee from Rome in 1084 in order to survive.  Pope Gregory then died a year later, while Henry IV lived on for another 20 years.  This conflict by Germany and Rome would emerge again with the Protestant Reformation hundreds of years later.

The most important pope in the first century of the new millennium was Pope Gregory VII, who reigned from 1073 to 1085.  He is known for ending the control of the western church by the secular (non-church) rulers, particularly by abolishing “lay investiture,” by which non-church lords had control over the choice of bishops, abbots and other church officials.  Pope Gregory excommunicated the German King Henry IV because he insisted on installing bishops.  Henry IV then crossed the Alps in wintertime to seek forgiveness and absolution from the pope in the Canossa incident in 1077.  Historians today view the incident as an example of humiliation of a king by a religious leader.  Pope Gregory forgave him, but then Henry IV continued to demand control and even removal of Pope Gregory, ultimately causing Gregory to flee from Rome in 1084 in order to survive.  Pope Gregory then died a year later, while Henry IV lived on for another 20 years.  This conflict by Germany and Rome would emerge again with the Protestant Reformation hundreds of years later.

Meanwhile, Christianity continued to grow in power based on the productive feudal system.  The Christians defeated the Muslims in Spain in 1085 at the battle of Toledo, beginning the process of converting Spain back to Christianity after hundreds of years of Moslem rule.   

Meanwhile, Christianity continued to grow in power based on the productive feudal system.  The Christians defeated the Muslims in Spain in 1085 at the battle of Toledo, beginning the process of converting Spain back to Christianity after hundreds of years of Moslem rule.   

Several strict Christian religious orders were established in the 1000s in Europe, including the Carthusian Order (1086) and the Cistercian Order (1098).  There are monks today who continue to belong to these orders.  Both orders require silence and vegetarianism, in addition to giving up all worldly possessions.  The Carthusians lived (and still live) like hermits; the Cistercians spread Christianity and western farming knowledge to Eastern Europe, hosting many retreats for citizens to attend and participate in a week or weekend of prayer and learning.  At its peak, the Cistercians had over 700 monasteries.   

Several strict Christian religious orders were established in the 1000s in Europe, including the Carthusian Order (1086) and the Cistercian Order (1098).  There are monks today who continue to belong to these orders.  Both orders require silence and vegetarianism, in addition to giving up all worldly possessions.  The Carthusians lived (and still live) like hermits; the Cistercians spread Christianity and western farming knowledge to Eastern Europe, hosting many retreats for citizens to attend and participate in a week or weekend of prayer and learning.  At its peak, the Cistercians had over 700 monasteries.   

In 1066, the biggest event in English history occurred: the Battle of Hastings.  The Normans invaded and conquered the island and based on winning this battle the Normans established the reign of William the Conqueror, which lasted until 1087.  The Normans continued on to conquer most of Italy in 1084.  A few years later, in 1088, the first university in the world was established as the University of Bologna in Italy.

In 1066, the biggest event in English history occurred: the Battle of Hastings.  The Normans invaded and conquered the island.  Based on winning this battle the Normans established the reign of William the Conqueror, which lasted until 1087.  The Normans continued on to conquer most of Italy in 1084.  A few years later, in 1088, the first university in the world was established as the University of Bologna in Italy.

The end of this important first century of the second millennium was the capture by the Christians of Jerusalem.  This was the victory of the Crusades, a controversial military expedition that we discuss next.

The end of this important first century of the second millennium was the capture by the Christians of Jerusalem.  This was the victory of the Crusades, a controversial military expedition that we discuss next.

The Seljuk Turks defeated all opponents, ruling from the 1000s to the 1200s.  They did particularly well under their ruler Malik Shah, who died in 1092.  But some Moslems were unhappy with being ruled by the Turks, and once Malik died dissension in the Islamic world grew.

The Seljuk Turks defeated all opponents, ruling from the 1000s to the 1200s.  They did particularly well under their ruler Malik Shah, who died in 1092.  But some Moslems were unhappy with being ruled by the Turks, and once Malik died dissension in the Islamic world grew.

The Byzantine emperor, Alexius Comnenus, had been repeatedly defeated by the Seljuk Turks and he asked the pope for help to defeat the Moslems.  He promised a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church and to give Byzantine lands (“fiefs”) to victorious knights from the feudal west.

The Byzantine emperor, Alexius Comnenus, had been repeatedly defeated by the Seljuk Turks and he asked the pope for help to defeat the Moslems.  He promised a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church and to give Byzantine lands (“fiefs”) to victorious knights from feudal Western Europe.

At the Council at Clermont in southern France, Pope Urban II gave one of the greatest speeches ever.  Promising absolution and assurance of salvation to anyone who died in a crusade for the Holy Land, he urged a huge crowd to protect Christian pilgrims from the Turks.  He demanded that all internal feuds end in the West and he threatened excommunication (expulsion from the Catholic Church) for anyone who continued to bicker internally.  Those who decided to fight in the crusades were said to be “taking up the cross,” because they would wear a tunic with a large red cross on it.

At the Council at Clermont in southern France, Pope Urban II gave one of the greatest speeches ever.  Promising absolution and assurance of salvation to anyone who died in a crusade for the Holy Land, he urged a huge crowd to protect Christian pilgrims from the Turks.  He demanded that all internal feuds end in the West and he threatened excommunication (expulsion from the Catholic Church) for anyone who continued to bicker internally.  Those who decided to fight in the crusades were said to be “taking up the cross,” because they would wear a tunic with a large red cross on it.

In 1099, the First Crusade invaded and succeeded in capturing Jerusalem, and set up four feudal kingdoms that would remain for nearly 100 years.  Critics claim that the Christian crusaders massacred the inhabitants of Jerusalem in the process.  But it was a huge military victory for the Western forces, and Jerusalem was finally made safe for the pilgrims.  

In 1099, the First Crusade invaded and succeeded in capturing Jerusalem, and set up four feudal kingdoms that would remain for nearly 100 years.  Critics claim that the Christian crusaders massacred the inhabitants of Jerusalem in the process.  But it was a huge military victory for the Western forces, and Jerusalem was finally made safe for the pilgrims.  

A mixture of Christian spirituality and military adventure motivated the participants in the Crusades like never before in history, and perhaps never again since.  Merchants participated also in the hope of establishing new trade connections.  While historians emphasize abuses committed by soldiers, most of the crusaders were acting to advance the cause of Christianity and secure salvation for others and perhaps themselves.  Of course not everyone who participated was so noble.  Criminals who fought in the Crusade were pardoned, and a crusader was exempt from taxation from the time that he “took up the cross,” until he returned from the war.  Still for the most part, this was a religious war fought by devout Christians.

A mixture of Christian spirituality and military adventure motivated the participants in the Crusades as never before in history, and perhaps never again.  Merchants participated also in the hope of establishing new trade connections.  While historians emphasize abuses committed by soldiers, most of the crusaders were acting to advance the cause of Christianity and secure salvation for others and perhaps themselves.  Of course not everyone who participated was so noble.  Criminals who fought in the Crusades were pardoned, and a crusader was exempt from taxation from the time that he “took up the cross,” until he returned from the war.  Still, for the most part, this was a religious war fought by devout Christians.

The Second Crusade in 1147-49, however, was a failure.  Then, in 1187, the Muslims captured Jerusalem under their leader Saladin.  A subsequent Third Crusade (1189-92) had the limited success of obtaining a truce from Saladin in order to allow Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem.  The partially successful Third Crusade was spearheaded by the leaders of France, the Holy Roman Empire, and King Richard the Lion-Hearted of England.  Only King Richard saw this mission to its completion; the other leaders returned home after bickering, or drowned.  

The Second Crusade in 1147-49, however, was a failure.  Then, in 1187, the Muslims captured Jerusalem under their leader Saladin.  A subsequent Third Crusade (1189-92) had the limited success of obtaining a truce from Saladin in order to allow Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem.  The partially successful Third Crusade was spearheaded by the leaders of France, the Holy Roman Empire, and King Richard the Lion-Hearted of England.  Only King Richard saw this mission to its completion; the other leaders returned home after bickering, or drowned.  

Two subsequent crusades were tragic.  The Fourth Crusade (1202-04) never reached the Holy Land and ended with the crusaders’ sacking Constantinople—a Christian city—wounding it forever and embittering the East against the West.  A Children’s Crusade (1212) consisted of peasants leading thousands of children on a mission of love to Jerusalem, but the children either drowned or were taken and sold into slavery.  The later Crusades lost their religious motivation.  Historians claim they were motivated by greed and ambition.

Two subsequent Crusades were tragic.  The Fourth Crusade (1202-04) never reached the Holy Land and ended with the crusaders’ sacking Constantinople—a Christian city—wounding it forever and embittering the East against the West.  A Children’s Crusade (1212) consisted of peasants leading thousands of children on a mission of love to Jerusalem, but the children either drowned or were taken and sold into slavery.  The later Crusades lost their religious motivation.  Historians claim they were motivated by greed and ambition.

The Crusades remain a controversial issue, particularly by opponents of Christianity who describe it as unjust violence by Christians.  But historians agree that the impact of the Crusades on the world was enormous, even leading to Christopher Columbus exploring the New World.  The Crusades were, in fact, the biggest cause of the subsequent end of the Middle Ages in Western Europe.  There are many reasons why:

The Crusades remain a controversial issue, particularly by opponents of Christianity who describe it as unjust violence by Christians.  But historians agree that the impact of the Crusades on the world was enormous, even leading to Christopher Columbus (much later) to explore the New World.  The Crusades were, in fact, the biggest cause of the subsequent end of the Middle Ages in Western Europe.  There are many reasons why:

(1)  The Catholic Church gained more power due to the Crusades, and this led to the Reformation.

(1)  The Catholic Church gained more power due to the Crusades, and this led to the Reformation.

(8)  Historians argue that the Crusades improved the power of women who were left to manage property as the crusaders went off into battle.

(8)  Historians argue that the Crusades improved the power of women who were left to manage property as the crusaders went off into battle.

Some Christians fully defend the Crusades, and proudly compare the United States’ invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq to a modern version of the Crusades.  But President George W. Bush, perhaps afraid of the psychologically effect of the comparison, carefully avoided comparing the invasion of Afghanistan and the Iraq War to the Crusades.  Note that although both the Crusades and the Iraq War consisted of battles between Christian and Moslems, in neither case were the Christians attempting to use force to convert.

Some Christians fully defend the Crusades, and proudly compare the United States’ invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq to a modern version of the Crusades.  But President George W. Bush, perhaps afraid of the psychological effect of the comparison, carefully avoided comparing the invasion of Afghanistan and the Iraq War to the Crusades.  Note that although both the Crusades and the Iraq War consisted of battles between Christian and Moslems, in neither case were the Christians attempting to use force to convert.

==The Mongols==

==The Mongols==