Changes

The end of the Byzantine empire occurred when Mongols invaded in the 13th century (the 1200s), followed by the rise of the Ottoman (Muslim) Turks to power in the 14th century (the 1300s), who replaced the Byzantium empire with their own.  The Ottoman empire then lasted over 600 years, from 1299 to 1923, when it was divided by the victors in World War I.  At the height of its power in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman empire included Anatolia, the Middle East, portions of North Africa, and much of southeastern Europe.

The end of the Byzantine empire occurred when Mongols invaded in the 13th century (the 1200s), followed by the rise of the Ottoman (Muslim) Turks to power in the 14th century (the 1300s), who replaced the Byzantium empire with their own.  The Ottoman empire then lasted over 600 years, from 1299 to 1923, when it was divided by the victors in World War I.  At the height of its power in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman empire included Anatolia, the Middle East, portions of North Africa, and much of southeastern Europe.

While powerful nation-states were developing in Europe, absolutist empires were spreading throughout the East and Islam was growing rapidly.  In present-day Turkey, in a region known as “Anatolia,” Muslim warriors called “ghazi” arose, seeking to conquer land belonging to infidels, or people of non-Islamic faith.  A famous ghazi named Osmen Bey began the Ottoman empire.  The strongest characteristic of the Ottoman and other Asian empires of the time was their use of gunpowder, which gave rise to the term “gunpowder empires.”  Under Ottoman rule, non-Muslims had to pay a tax to avoid military service, which was mandatory for Muslims.  Slaves called “janissaries” were also used as warriors.

While powerful nation-states were developing in Europe, absolutist empires were spreading throughout the East, and Islam was growing rapidly.  In present-day Turkey, in a region known as “Anatolia,” Muslim warriors called “ghazi” arose, seeking to conquer land belonging to infidels, or people of non-Islamic faith.  A famous ghazi named Osmen Bey began the Ottoman empire.  The strongest characteristic of the Ottoman and other Asian empires of the time was their use of gunpowder, which gave rise to the term “gunpowder empires.”  Under Ottoman rule, non-Muslims had to pay a tax to avoid military service, which was mandatory for Muslims.  Slaves called “janissaries” were also used as warriors.

In 1453 Ottoman sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople, and tore the cross off the top of the Hagia Sophia, declaring the Christian church to be a mosque.  Selim the Grim and Suleiman I followed, expanding the Ottoman territories into an empire comprising Constantinople (now Istanbul), Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, Greece and even parts of Hungary and Austria.  The height of the Ottoman empire existed during the reign of Suleiman I, which lasted from A.D. 1520 to 1566.  Suleiman was known by Europeans as “the Magnificent” because of the splendor of his reign, but he had the greatest historical influence as a provider of laws and legal standards.  His picture can be found in the United States Supreme Court alongside those of Moses, Thomas Jefferson and Solon.  Called “people of the book,” Christians and Jews were allowed to practice their religions under Ottoman rule.

In 1453 Ottoman sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople, and tore the cross off the top of the Hagia Sophia, declaring the Christian church to be a mosque.  Selim the Grim and Suleiman I followed, expanding the Ottoman territories into an empire comprising Constantinople (now Istanbul), Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, Greece and even parts of Hungary and Austria.  The height of the Ottoman empire existed during the reign of Suleiman I, which lasted from A.D. 1520 to 1566.  Suleiman was known by Europeans as “the Magnificent” because of the splendor of his reign, but he had the greatest historical influence as a provider of laws and legal standards.  His picture can be found in the United States Supreme Court alongside those of Moses, Thomas Jefferson and Solon.  Called “people of the book,” Christians and Jews were allowed to practice their religions under Ottoman rule.

There were other Islamic empires in addition to the Ottoman empire: the Islamic empires of Safavid and Mughal.  The Safavid dynasty, located in northwest Persia, was founded by a 14-year old “shah” (king) named Ismail (another spelling of the biblical name “Ishmael”) who conquered the Seljuk Turks in North India.  The Shi’ite Safavids fought with the Sunni Ottomans for 200 years.  Safavid Shah Abbas the Great saw the peak of the Safavid Empire during his reign from 1588-1629, and established trade with Europe.

There were other Islamic empires in addition to the Ottoman empire: the Islamic empires of Safavid and Mughal.  The Safavid dynasty, located in northwest Persia, was founded by a 14-year old “shah” (king) named Ismail (another spelling of the biblical name “Ishmael”) who conquered the Seljuk Turks in North India.  The Shi’ite Safavids fought with the Sunni Ottomans for 200 years.  Safavid Shah Abbas the Great saw the peak of the Safavid Empire during his reign from 1588-1629, and established trade with Europe.

The beginnings of the Mughal Empire, located in India, were established by Babur around 1525 AD.  Under the reign of Babur’s grandson Akbar (1556-1605), the Mughal Empire experienced its “Golden Age,” during which taxes were decreased.  The languages spoken were Persian, Hindi (still spoken in India today), and Urdu (a new language combining Persian, Hindi, and Arabic characters, and today it is Pakistan’s official language).  Other religions were tolerated under Akbar’s rule, but not under Aurangzeb’s notoriously intolerant rule (from 1659-1707), during which Hindus were taxed and their temples torn down.  This caused discord in the Mughal Empire, and resulted in an uprising of the previously non-violent Hindi-Muslim Sikhs.   

The beginnings of the Mughal Empire, located in India, were established by Babur around A.D. 1525.  Under the reign of Babur’s grandson Akbar (1556-1605), the Mughal Empire experienced its “Golden Age,” during which taxes were decreased.  The languages spoken were Persian, Hindi (still spoken in India today), and Urdu (a new language combining Persian, Hindi, and Arabic characters, and today it is Pakistan’s official language).  Other religions were tolerated under Akbar’s rule, but not under Aurangzeb’s notoriously intolerant rule (from 1659-1707), during which Hindus were taxed and their temples torn down.  This caused discord in the Mughal Empire, and resulted in an uprising of the previously non-violent Hindi-Muslim Sikhs.   

Contributions of these Islamic empires include the stunningly beautiful Taj Mahal, an enormous tomb built of pure white marble beginning in 1631 by Akbar’s grandson Shah Jahan for his beloved wife.  The construction of the Taj Mahal in India took 18 years, and 20,000 workers were used.  Jahan was so overwhelmed with its beauty, and so cruel to its workers, that he had their hands cut off so they would never build another one like it!  Jahan also constructed the “Red Fort,” a red-sandstone palace and the “Peacock Throne,” encrusted with thousands of gems.  Many beautiful mosques and palaces were built in Constantinople under Ottoman rule, many designed by artist and architect Pasha Sinan.  The most famous Ottoman form of art was the blue-and-white pottery of Iznik.

Contributions of these Islamic empires include the stunningly beautiful Taj Mahal, an enormous tomb built of pure white marble beginning in 1631 by Akbar’s grandson Shah Jahan for his beloved wife.  The construction of the Taj Mahal in India took 18 years, and 20,000 workers were used.  Jahan was so overwhelmed with its beauty, and so cruel to its workers, that he had their hands cut off so they would never build another one like it!  Jahan also constructed the “Red Fort,” a red-sandstone palace and the “Peacock Throne,” encrusted with thousands of gems.  Many beautiful mosques and palaces were built in Constantinople under Ottoman rule, many designed by artist and architect Pasha Sinan.  The most famous Ottoman form of art was the blue-and-white pottery of Iznik.