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:Again he [St. Gregory] asked what might be the name of the people from which they came. It was answered to him that they were named Angles. Then he said, "Rightly are they called Angles because they have the beauty of angels, and it is fitting that such as they should be angels' companions in heaven."  

:Again he [St. Gregory] asked what might be the name of the people from which they came. It was answered to him that they were named Angles. Then he said, "Rightly are they called Angles because they have the beauty of angels, and it is fitting that such as they should be angels' companions in heaven."  

Middle English was an improvement due to the importation of Latin from Europe into England, at least among scholars.  John Wycliffe used Middle English when he did the first new translation of the Bible in nearly 1000 years.

Middle English was an improvement due to the importation of Latin from Europe into England, at least among scholars.  John Wycliffe used Middle English when he worked on the first new translation of the Bible in nearly 1000 years.

John Wycliffe was nearly 200 years ahead of "his time," meaning he was that far ahead of the Reformation that came later.  For that reason he is called the "Morning star of the Reformation."<ref name="Wycliffe">http://www.greatsite.com/timeline-english-bible-history/john-wycliffe.html</ref>  A brilliant scholar, Wycliffe developed his own views of Christianity and attracted a following of itinerant preachers known as the "Lollards".  Wycliffe simplified aspects of Christianity for peasants who otherwise had difficulties understanding it, such as developing a doctrine of the Lord's Supper in only twelve short sentences, and having his itinerant preachers teach that everywhere.  The chancellor of the University of Oxford pronounced some of Wycliffe's theories as heretical.  Wycliffe eventually criticized scholasticism, monasteries, and papacy, and became increasingly disliked by the English royal hierarchy.

John Wycliffe was nearly 200 years ahead of "his time," meaning he was that far ahead of the Reformation that came later.  For that reason he is called the "Morning star of the Reformation."<ref name="Wycliffe">http://www.greatsite.com/timeline-english-bible-history/john-wycliffe.html</ref>  A brilliant scholar, Wycliffe developed his own views of Christianity and attracted a following of itinerant preachers known as the "Lollards".  Wycliffe simplified aspects of Christianity for peasants who otherwise had difficulties understanding it, such as developing a doctrine of the Lord's Supper in only twelve short sentences, and having his itinerant preachers teach that everywhere.  The chancellor of the University of Oxford pronounced some of Wycliffe's theories as heretical.  Wycliffe eventually criticized scholasticism, monasteries, and the papacy, and became increasingly disliked by the English royal hierarchy.

At the time the Church prohibited new translations of the Bible, in order to maintain control and combat heresies.  Wycliffe died peacefully in 1384, without having been excommunicated by the Church or executed by the King.  He was blamed in England, however, for supposedly causing revolt by the peasants (such as the Peasants' Revolt of 1381).  After his death a Council of the Church reviewed Wycliffe's theories and declared most of them to be false or heretical, and as a result ordered that his buried bones be dug up and burned, and they eventually were.

At the time the Church prohibited new translations of the Bible, in order to maintain control and combat heresies.  Wycliffe died peacefully in 1384, without having been excommunicated by the Church or executed by the King.  He was blamed in England, however, for supposedly causing revolt by the peasants (such as the Peasants' Revolt of 1381).  After his death a Council of the Church reviewed Wycliffe's theories and declared most of them to be false or heretical, and as a result ordered that his buried bones be dug up and burned, and they eventually were.

During this time period, Europeans experienced a renewed interest in classical Greek and Roman civilization and in learning science, mathematics, literature, the arts, and philosophy.  The term “Renaissance man” has come to mean a man who is remarkably well-rounded and learned in every subject, as this is what was expected of men during the Renaissance.

During this time period, Europeans experienced a renewed interest in classical Greek and Roman civilization and in learning science, mathematics, literature, the arts, and philosophy.  The term “Renaissance man” has come to mean a man who is remarkably well-rounded and learned in every subject, as this is what was expected of men during the Renaissance.

The Renaissance sparked tremendous achievements in science by Copernicus, Kepler and, to a lesser extent, Galileo, all of whom we will discuss more in the next lecture.  Exploration of the world also began in the Renaissance, including the voyages of Columbus (1492), Magellan and Da Gama, whom we will also address in the next class.   

The Renaissance sparked tremendous achievements in science by Copernicus, Kepler and, to a lesser extent, Galileo, all of whom we will discuss more in the next lecture.  Exploration of the world also began during the Renaissance, including the voyages of Columbus (1492), Magellan and Da Gama, whom we will also address in the next class.   

The northern city-states of Italy were a perfect location for the Renaissance to occur, as Italian culture was built off of classical Greek and Roman civilization.  Recall that Italy and Germany did not form nation-states like France and England, and without a centralized government the Italian city-states were conducive to culture and intellectual renewal.  The Italian cities had become important and wealthy locations by selling and trading during the Crusades, and Muslim and Byzantine learning had also been brought to Italy during the Crusades.  The Italian city of Florence was home to wealthy families, such as the prominent Medici family, who were willing to finance artists.  Friendly competition developed between the different city-states brought out the best in people and created an environment in which initiative and creativity flourished.

The northern city-states of Italy were a perfect location for the Renaissance to occur, as Italian culture was built off of classical Greek and Roman civilization.  Recall that Italy and Germany did not form nation-states like France and England, and without a centralized government the Italian city-states were conducive to culture and intellectual renewal.  The Italian cities had become important and wealthy locations by selling and trading during the Crusades, and Muslim and Byzantine learning had also been brought to Italy during the Crusades.  The Italian city of Florence was home to wealthy families, such as the prominent Medici family, who were willing to finance artists.  Friendly competition developed between the different city-states brought out the best in people and created an environment in which initiative and creativity flourished.

===Artists===

===Artists===

[[Image:Pieta.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Pieta|The Pieta]]]]

[[Image:Pieta.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Pieta|The Pieta]]]]

Perhaps the greatest achievement of the Renaissance was the outstanding artwork it produced.  Especially in the Italian cities of Florence and Rome, master artists emerged who produced astonishing works of art in sculpture, painting and architecture.  The devout Christian atmosphere in Italy combined with the competitive spirit of the Italian city-states created a perfect environment for the flourishing of art.   

Perhaps the greatest achievement of the Renaissance was the outstanding artwork it produced.  Especially in the Italian cities of Florence and Rome, master artists emerged who produced astonishing works of art in sculpture, painting and architecture.  The devout Christian atmosphere in Italy combined with the competitive spirit of the Italian city-states created a perfect environment for art to flourish.   

One of the first artists to incorporate new ideas into his artwork was Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337), who brought unprecedented elements of realism in his paintings.  Giotto, a typical Renaissance jack-of-all-trades, also designed the innovative campanile (bell tower) for the Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral in Florence.   

One of the first artists to incorporate new ideas into his artwork was Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337), who worked unprecedented elements of realism into his paintings.  Giotto, a typical Renaissance jack-of-all-trades, also designed the innovative campanile (bell tower) for the Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral in Florence.   

Flemish (Dutch) artists introduced oil paints, and the technique of perspective was introduced by artists like Tommaso Masaccio and Filippo Brunelleschi.  Brunelleschi also designed the Duomo (dome) for the Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral in Florence, a breakthrough in engineering and architecture that revealed Brunelleschi’s deep understanding of mathematics.

Flemish (Dutch) artists introduced oil paints, and the technique of perspective was introduced by artists like Tommaso Masaccio and Filippo Brunelleschi.  Brunelleschi also designed the Duomo (dome) for the Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral in Florence, a breakthrough in engineering and architecture that revealed Brunelleschi’s deep understanding of mathematics.

Donatello (1386-1466) was an influential painter and sculpture of the early Renaissance from Florence.  He sculpted a bronze “David,” the first free-standing nude statue since the days of the Greeks and Romans, and sculpted another famous statue of St. George.  Titian (Tiziano Vicelli) (1477-1576) was a painter with an unprecedented use of color and loose brushwork, evident in his stunning masterpiece ''The Assumption of the Virgin''.  Raphael (1482-1520) also mastered the use of color and painted beautiful frescoes in churches and for private patrons, the most famous of which may be ''The School of Athens'', an interesting painting depicting Plato and Aristotle surrounded by their pupils.  He inspired the two greatest artists in the history of the Renaissance, and indeed of all of world history: Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.   

Donatello (1386-1466) was an influential painter and sculptor of the early Renaissance from Florence.  He sculpted a bronze “David,” the first free-standing nude statue since the days of the Greeks and Romans, and sculpted another famous statue of St. George.  Titian (Tiziano Vicelli) (1477-1576) was a painter skilled with unprecedented use of color and loose brushwork, evident in his stunning masterpiece ''The Assumption of the Virgin''.  Raphael (1482-1520) also mastered the use of color and painted beautiful frescoes in churches and for private patrons, the most famous of which may be ''The School of Athens'', an interesting painting depicting Plato and Aristotle surrounded by their pupils.  He inspired the two greatest artists in the history of the Renaissance, and indeed of all of world history: Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.   

Michelangelo (1475-1564) is best known for his sculpture of a full-sized statue of David and for painting the ceiling of the [[Sistine Chapel]], an astounding fresco that included over 300 Biblical figures (including the famous image of God creating Adam with an outstretched arm and hand that touches Adam's outstretched arm and hand).  The Sistine Chapel that took more than four years to complete, and an impatient Church official who wanted it completed sooner ended up being featured in the depiction of Hell!  Michelangelo also sculpted amazing renditions of Moses and “the Pieta,” a sculpture of Jesus in Mary’s arms after the Crucifixion (see above right).  The Pieta has an overpowering sense of love and tragedy to it unmatched by any other work of art in history.  Following Brunelleschi’s model Duomo in Florence, Michelangelo designed the dome for St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.     

Michelangelo (1475-1564) is best known for his sculpture of a full-sized statue of David and for painting the ceiling of the [[Sistine Chapel]], an astounding fresco that included over 300 Biblical figures (including the famous image of God creating Adam with an outstretched arm and hand that touches Adam's outstretched arm and hand).  The Sistine Chapel that took more than four years to complete, and an impatient Church official who wanted it completed sooner ended up being featured in the depiction of Hell!  Michelangelo also sculpted amazing renditions of Moses and “the Pieta,” a sculpture of Jesus in Mary’s arms after the Crucifixion (see above right).  The Pieta has an overpowering sense of love and tragedy to it unmatched by any other work of art in history.  Following Brunelleschi’s model Duomo in Florence, Michelangelo designed the dome for St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.     

===Writers===

===Writers===

Dante (1265-1321) was an early Renaissance poet, born to a prominent family in Florence.  (The Italian town of Florence was considered the cradle of the Renaissance by 1425, but Venice and Rome became just as successful by the early 1500s.)  Dante wrote in the Italian language of the time (the local language, like Italian, is known as "the vernacular,") rather than in ancient Latin.  Dante described the path of a soul to salvation in “The Divine Comedy,” in which Dante travels through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso).  In this journey, Dante is first guided by the Roman epic poet Virgil, and then he is later guided by girl he loved as a youth, named Beatrice, who had tragically died in real life.  The account of Hell is known as “Dante’s Inferno,” and it is frightful.  Throughout history Hell was emphasized far more than it is today, when almost no one mentions Hell in Church.

Dante (1265-1321) was an early Renaissance poet, born to a prominent family in Florence.  (The Italian town of Florence was considered the cradle of the Renaissance by 1425, but Venice and Rome became just as successful by the early 1500s.)  Dante wrote in the Italian language of the time (the local language, in this case Italian, is known as "the vernacular,") rather than in ancient Latin.  Dante described the path of a soul to salvation in “The Divine Comedy,” in which Dante travels through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso).  In this journey, Dante is first guided by the Roman epic poet Virgil, and then he is later guided by a girl he loved as a youth, named Beatrice, who had tragically died in real life.  The account of Hell is known as “Dante’s Inferno,” and it is frightful.  Throughout history Hell was emphasized far more than it is today, when almost no one mentions Hell in Church.

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) wrote ''The Prince'', which is an account of government by which the "end justifies the means" (in other words, a ruler can use any means to gain power and rule his state).  Even today the term "Machiavellian" is used to criticize a politician who spends all his time and effort on getting ahead and manipulating other people for his own gain.  A "Machiavellian" politician is a cunning person who will say or do anything if he thinks it brings him political benefit.  For centuries the reputation of Machiavelli was that he had been inspired by the devil.  Like other Renaissance artists and thinkers, Machiavelli lived in Florence.

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) wrote ''The Prince'', which is an account of government by which the "end justifies the means" (in other words, a ruler can use any means to gain power and rule his state).  Even today the term "Machiavellian" is used to criticize a politician who spends all his time and effort on getting ahead and manipulating other people for his own gain.  A "Machiavellian" politician is a cunning person who will say or do anything if he thinks it brings him political benefit.  For centuries the reputation of Machiavelli was that he had been inspired by the devil.  Like other Renaissance artists and thinkers, Machiavelli lived in Florence.

But many historians are hostile to Christianity, and they do not want to credit Christianity for the stunning achievements of the Renaissance.  Accordingly, they claim that the Renaissance embraced “humanism”, which favored the capacity of man to reason and think for himself without reliance on Christianity.  There is no single definition for “humanism”, and the philosophical term was not used during the Renaissance.  But any view that looks to “humans” as the sole source of value can be called “humanist”.   

But many historians are hostile to Christianity, and they do not want to credit Christianity for the stunning achievements of the Renaissance.  Accordingly, they claim that the Renaissance embraced “humanism”, which favored the capacity of man to reason and think for himself without reliance on Christianity.  There is no single definition for “humanism”, and the philosophical term was not used during the Renaissance.  But any view that looks to “humans” as the sole source of value can be called “humanist”.   

Under an anti-Christian view of history, emphasis  in the Renaissance moved away from the focus on spiritual things that was characteristic of the Middle Ages, to a focus on material, earthly things.  It is true that the Renaissance men wrote about and painted everyday things, such as the woman depicted in the Mona Lisa.  It is also true that the study of nature and science began to become fields of endeavor of their own, and art and literature focused more on the present life than the afterlife.  But the great artists and thinkers of the Renaissance were inspired by Christianity in performing their works, and the objects of their work were men and women created in the image of God (in contrast with paintings of nature, which were rare at this time).  There was nothing at all anti-religious or humanist about the Renaissance.  Perhaps 90% of more of its achievements were inspired by Christian beliefs and faith.

Under an anti-Christian view of history, emphasis  in the Renaissance moved away from the focus on spiritual things that was characteristic of the Middle Ages, to a focus on material, earthly things.  It is true that the Renaissance men wrote about and painted everyday things, such as the woman depicted in the Mona Lisa.  It is also true that the study of nature and science began to become fields of endeavor of their own, and art and literature focused more on the present life than the afterlife.  But the great artists and thinkers of the Renaissance were inspired by Christianity in performing their works, and the objects of their work were men and women created in the image of God (in contrast with paintings of nature, which were rare at this time).  There was nothing at all anti-religious or humanist about the Renaissance.  Perhaps 90% or more of its achievements were inspired by Christian beliefs and faith.

Centuries after the Renaissance, secularism did creep in.  Secularism is defined as preoccupation with the material world at the expense of disregarding the heavenly one.  This caused people to become increasingly materialistic.  The teachings of the Bible lost importance to some.  Some people rejected religion altogether, becoming “secular humanists.”  But even later, the greatest scientific works were by devout Christians like Isaac Newton and Louis Pasteur.

Centuries after the Renaissance, secularism did creep in.  Secularism is defined as preoccupation with the material world at the expense of disregarding the heavenly one.  This caused people to become increasingly materialistic.  The teachings of the Bible lost importance to some.  Some people rejected religion altogether, becoming “secular humanists.”  But even later, the greatest scientific works were by devout Christians like Isaac Newton and Louis Pasteur.

The disagreement that ignited the Reformation did not seem large at the time.  Pope Leo X was an ambitious and extravagant man from the prominent Italian Medici family, and he became pope at the vigorous young age of 37.  He wanted to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican in a lavish style that he thought was appropriate for such a special church.  To do so, he needed to raise a great deal of money.  He invited donations in the names of the deceased, usually a relative of the donor.

The disagreement that ignited the Reformation did not seem large at the time.  Pope Leo X was an ambitious and extravagant man from the prominent Italian Medici family, and he became pope at the vigorous young age of 37.  He wanted to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican in a lavish style that he thought was appropriate for such a special church.  To do so, he needed to raise a great deal of money.  He invited donations in the names of the deceased, usually a relative of the donor.

Under Catholic doctrine the souls of the deceased enter “purgatory” for a process of purification before reaching heaven.  Prayers are typically offered for the benefit of the souls of the deceased, typically relatives.  “Indulgences” are the lessening of the punishment (purification) of someone after they die.  A person typically seeks an indulgence for a dear relative or friend who has passed away.

Under Catholic doctrine the souls of the deceased enter “purgatory” for a process of purification before reaching heaven.  Prayers are typically offered for the benefit of the souls of the deceased, quite often relatives.  “Indulgences” are the lessening of the punishment (purification) of someone after they die.  A person typically seeks an indulgence for a dear relative or friend who has passed away.

In fundraising to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica, church officials offered indulgences in exchange for donations.  No one in Rome seemed to mind, but Martin Luther objected.  He nailed 95 objections or “Theses” to a church door in the German part of Europe in 1517, inviting debate on how the pope was offering indulgences:

In fundraising to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica, church officials offered indulgences in exchange for donations.  No one in Rome seemed to mind, but Martin Luther objected.  He nailed 95 objections or “Theses” to a church door in the German part of Europe in 1517, inviting debate on how the pope was offering indulgences:

Protestants are on average wealthier than Catholics and tend to support free enterprise more, and evangelical Protestants are often more vocal on social issues.  Catholics generally prohibit divorce, while Protestants allow it.  American Protestants tend to oppose immigration more than Catholics do, while Catholics tend to oppose the death penalty more than Protestants do.  Having competition between Catholics and Protestants may have a beneficial effect.

Protestants are on average wealthier than Catholics and tend to support free enterprise more, and evangelical Protestants are often more vocal on social issues.  Catholics generally prohibit divorce, while Protestants allow it.  American Protestants tend to oppose immigration more than Catholics do, while Catholics tend to oppose the death penalty more than Protestants do.  Having competition between Catholics and Protestants may have a beneficial effect.

Politically, Catholics voted for Barack Obama in higher percentages than Protestants did, but traditionally in America Catholics have long been associated with the Democratic Party while Protestants have long been associated with the Republican Party.  Also, wealth and ethnicity play a role in voting patterns, and American Catholics tend to be poorer and more ethnically diverse than American Protestants.  In European countries, such as Germany, Protestant regions (as in the former East Germany) then to be more liberal than Catholic regions (as in the former West Germany).  For both Catholics and Protestants, the more time one spends in church each week, the more conservative the person tends to vote.

Politically, Catholics voted for Barack Obama in higher percentages than Protestants did, but traditionally in America Catholics have long been associated with the Democratic Party while Protestants have long been associated with the Republican Party.  Also, wealth and ethnicity play a role in voting patterns, and American Catholics tend to be poorer and more ethnically diverse than American Protestants.  In European countries, such as Germany, Protestant regions (as in the former East Germany) tend to be more liberal than Catholic regions (as in the former West Germany).  For both Catholics and Protestants, the more time one spends in church each week, the more conservative the person tends to vote.

==Asia in the Middle Ages==

==Asia in the Middle Ages==

The culture of China during this period included a practice of the wealthy Chinese in “foot-binding” young girls’ feet with strips of cloth in order to make it more difficult for them to walk and work when they became adults.  Historians criticize this as a way that men made women dependent on them, but this cultural practice was also considered to make women more attractive and to be a sign that they were wealthy enough not to work.

The culture of China during this period included a practice of the wealthy Chinese in “foot-binding” young girls’ feet with strips of cloth in order to make it more difficult for them to walk and work when they became adults.  Historians criticize this as a way that men made women dependent on them, but this cultural practice was also considered to make women more attractive and to be a sign that they were wealthy enough not to work.

Population grew during the Tan and Song Dynasties, and there was one tremendous invention (by accident) that would change the world:  gunpowder.  Other inventions included good porcelain (“chinaware”), moveable type for printing (which distributed Buddhist texts) and the magnetic compass for facilitating travel to Africa and the Persian Gulf.  Iron production aided farmers and soldiers.

Population grew during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and there was one tremendous invention (by accident) that would change the world:  gunpowder.  Other inventions included good porcelain (“chinaware”), moveable type for printing (which distributed Buddhist texts) and the magnetic compass for facilitating travel to Africa and the Persian Gulf.  Iron production aided farmers and soldiers.

The civil servants (government workers) were the upper class, while merchants and shopkeepers formed the middle class.  Trade by the Malay sailors brought goods from faraway.  Tea and a fast-growing rice came from Vietnam, and the Chinese learned to plant and harvest two crops each year rather than just one on the same soil.  The Chinese enjoyed a surplus of food, and exported for payment the excess of food that it did not consume.

The civil servants (government workers) were the upper class, while merchants and shopkeepers formed the middle class.  Trade by the Malay sailors brought goods from faraway.  Tea and a fast-growing rice came from Vietnam, and the Chinese learned to plant and harvest two crops each year rather than just one on the same soil.  The Chinese enjoyed a surplus of food, and exported for payment the excess of food that it did not consume.

The Siamese, which is the name for the residents of the modern Thailand (called “Siam” until 1939), destroyed the Khmer empire with conquests up until the 14th century.  But “Khmer Republic” came back as the official name for Cambodia in 1970-75.

The Siamese, which is the name for the residents of the modern Thailand (called “Siam” until 1939), destroyed the Khmer empire with conquests up until the 14th century.  But “Khmer Republic” came back as the official name for Cambodia in 1970-75.

The “Khmer Rouge” was a Cambodian communist movement that savagely killed about 2 million Cambodians in the 1970s and destroyed much of the nation after the United States left nearby Vietnam.  Later, Vietnam communists invaded and overthrew the Cambodian communists.

The “Khmer Rouge” was a Cambodian communist movement that savagely killed about 2 million Cambodians in the 1970s and destroyed much of the nation after the United States left nearby Vietnam.  Later, Vietnamese communists invaded and overthrew the Cambodian communists.

== References ==

== References ==